Bài giảng Tiếng Anh Lớp 9 - Functional English Grammar 3 - Trương Văn Ánh

Nội dung text: Bài giảng Tiếng Anh Lớp 9 - Functional English Grammar 3 - Trương Văn Ánh

1. Functional English Grammar: An Introduction for Second Language Teachers Mr. Trương Văn Ánh
2. Unit 3 Ideational function 1 Verb groups A verb group can be considered an expanded verb. Ex: Jack won the prize. Jack could have won the prize. The verb group head represents the experiential meaning of the process, that is, the doing, happening, seeing, thinking, liking, being, having, etc.
3. The maximum of the constituents in a verb group is five, including a head (lexical verb) and auxiliary verbs or just auxiliaries. AUXILIARIES HEAD 5 4 3 2 1 Will have is is eat Shall has am am eats Would had are are ate Can been been eaten May eating should
4. Column 5: auxiliaries Column 4: perfect auxiliaries Column 3: continuous auxiliaries Column 2: passive auxiliaries The auxiliaries in column 5 are known as modal auxiliaries, or simply modals. (ten modals). (could, must, ought to, might) According to specific context, the possible combinations of auxiliaries are flexible. There are four semimodals: need, dare, used to, and have to.
5. NEED Modal verb Lexical verb + Modal verb: Ex: He need work hard (I need work hard) Need he work hard? (He needn’t work hard) + Main verb: Ex: He needs to work. (I need to work) S V O He doesn’t need to work.
6. When subjects are things, NEED can only play the role of main verbs (lexical verbs). Ex: The door needs painting. The door needs to be painted. The door needs being painted. DARE is used the same as NEED. (HAVE TO and USED TO should be revised at home).
7. Action processes Ex: In a loud voice, the stubborn child could scare the timid girl. The verb group “could scare” tells us about an action; the noun group “the stubborn child” represents the thing which does the action; the noun group “the timid girl” indicates the thing which receives the action, and the prepositional phrase “in a loud voice” tells us how the action is carried out. The action in this clause is a kind of process, and the doer and receiver of the action are
8. kinds of participants. In this chapter we look at the configurations of participants and circumstances typical of such action processes. Actor and Goal Most of the action process clauses have two associated participants. Ex: Jack moved the chair. “Jack”, a participant, is called Actor. In all active voice action process clauses, the Actor is also the Subject.
9. The second participant “the chair”, which is often called the Direct Object, is Goal. If we ask a question like “What did X do?”, X will be the Actor. If we ask a question “What happened to Y?”, Y will be the Goal. ACTOR Ex: What did Jack do? Jack moved the chair. GOAL What happened to the chair? Jack moved the chair.
10. Recipient and Beneficiary Some action processes can have three associated participants. Ex: He sent Mary some flowers. “He” is the Actor; “some flowers” is the Goal; “Mary” is the indirect object and also called the Recipient. The clause may be rewritten as follows. He sent some flowers to Mary.
11. Ex: He bought Mary some flowers. This sentence may be rewritten as follows. He bought some flowers for Mary. The prepositions are different: to >< for The participant “Mary” is not someone who receives the Goal. Rather it is someone for whose benefit the action is carried out. In this clause “Mary” is the Beneficiary. Both “send” and “buy” are ditransitive verbs.
12. Configurations of participants and the learners The problems of configurations of participants occur when learners learn English. Ex: He built his daughter a house. (acceptable) He constructed his daughter a house. (not acceptable) (Monotrans > different participants
13. Call the participants correct names: 1. The sun set. 2. A bee bit her. 3. The old man gave her a doll. 4. Marx wrote the Capital. 5. Mary wrote a letter to Daisy.
14. Action processes and voice ACTOR GOAL/ SUBJECT DIRECT OBJECT Mary cleaned the floor. In the passive voice version: GOAL ACTOR/ SUBJECT ADJUNCT The floor was cleaned by Mary.
15. Action processes and tense Referring to action processes going on, we use present continuous. Ex: He is watching TV now.
16. Range Ex: The team reached the top at last. “The top” looks at first sight like a Goal. However, the question “What happened to the top”? is odd. The technical term for this participant is Range.
17. Range is similar to Goal in that it is the Direct Object in the active clauses, and the Subject in the passive clauses. Ex: The top was reached at last. Special cases of Range: Ex: He sang me a song/ The baby slept a sound sleep/ She lives a miserable life. Ranges are used in collocations where the verbs have no experiential meaning and they are called delexical verbs. Ex: He made an important decision.
18. She often takes a huge bite. He will get an early start. These delexical structures are very common. Others cannot replace them. He would like to bathe. (unusual) He would like to take a bath. (normally) The commonly used delexical verbs are: give, have, make, get and take.
19. Unit 4 Ideational function 2 Causer and Affected CAUSER PROCESS AFFECTED Ex: A monkey broke a branch. GOAL PROCESS ACTOR A branch was broken by a monkey. AFFECTED PROCESS A branch broke. (Ergativity) The clause has only one participant to which something happens. It is interpreted as middle voice.
20. Intransitive verbs which come from transitive verbs are called ergative verbs. For example, develop, evaporate, break, cool, etc. Teaching and learning ergative verbs Learners may use ergative verbs as intransitive verbs. However, when the implication of a Causer is important, transitive verbs are used. Ex: The rice sells well today. The rice is sold well today. In Vietnamese we say: Hôm nay gạo bán đắt.
21. Phase In phases there are two closely linked verbs. The first verbs are often finite; the other are nonfinite and dependent on the first verbs. Ex: She often goes shopping. They try to earn their living.
22. Causatives Causatives are a kind of extended phase where a second participant occurs between the two verbs. Ex: They allow us to pick some cherries. She let him enter the garden.
23. Relational and mental processes There are two kinds of verbs: Verbs of action process: move, eat, buy, etc. Verbs of mental process: believe, want, like, etc. Ex: He moved the chair. He believed her. They want him. Jack likes music.
24. Senser and Phenomenon Mental process clauses normally have at least one participant which must be animate and is usually human. Ex: She can see better without them on. “She” is called the Senser. Most mental process clauses also have second participants. Ex: She likes music. The second participant is called the Phenomenon.
25. Types of mental processes There are four types: - Perception: see, hear, smell, taste, feel, etc. - Affection: like, love, admire, miss, fear, hate, etc. - Cognition: think, believe, know, doubt, remember, forget , etc. - Volition: want, need, intend, desire, hope, wish, etc.
26. The phenomenon in perception processes Three cases take place behind perception process verbs. Things Ex: She saw a tractor. Events Ex: She saw him feed the chickens. (complete) She saw him feeding the chickens. (incomplete) Facts Ex: She saw that he had fed the chickens. (indirectly)
27. The phenomenon in affection processes Three cases take place behind affection process verbs. Things Ex: She likes music. Situations Ex: She likes him to feed the chickens. She likes him feeding the chickens. Facts Ex: She likes the fact that he feeds the chickens. She likes it that he feeds the chickens. (colloquial) She forgets that he has lent her some money.
28. The phenomenon in cognition processes Three cases take place behind cognition process verbs. Things Ex: She believes the feasibility. Facts Ex: She believes that you can do it. Thoughts Ex: She wonders why he refuses her invitation. “How nice!” she thought.
29. The phenomenon in volition processes Two cases take place behind volition process verbs. Things Ex: She doesn’t want him. Desires Ex: She wishes him to be happy. She desires that he should be happy.
30. Two processes with one Subject Subject + finite verb + nonfinite verb Ex: Kathy likes to eat mango. Kathy likes eating mango. Henry enjoys playing football. With the Ving form, something has already been done. With the To + V form, something is to be done later.
31. The phenomenon-Senser order of constituents SENSER PHENOMENON Ex: He liked the way she cooked stew. PHENOMENON SENSER The way she cooked stew pleased him. Tense in mental process classes With mental process verbs, the progressive or continuous tenses are not used, instead, the simple tenses must be used. Ex: He wants me to stay with him now.
32. Learning and teaching mental processes After mental process verbs, finite clauses beginning with If/Whether or WH words must be in affirmative forms. Ex: I don’t know what will he eat. (wrong) I don’t know what he will eat. (right) Learners may face with at least three ways of expressing a mental process. Ex: Students hate such hypocrisy. Such hypocrisy disgusts students. Students are disgusted by such hypocrisy. Such hypocrisy is hated by students.
33. Mental-action processes Some processes are between metal and action processes. They are called mental-action processes. (Sometimes they are mental processes; sometimes they are action processes) Mental processes Action processes I think he is right. I am thinking about him. I can hear the radio. I am listening to the radio. I can taste garlic in it. I am tasting the stew. I can see the ship. I am watching the ship.
34. Verbal processes Verbal processes are expressed by verbs such as tell, ask, reply, report, say, suggest, etc. SAYER SAYING Ex: He said a word. SAYER ADDRESSEE SAYING He told me a story. The SAYING may be quotes (direct speech) or reports (indirect speech). Ex: “Sit down,” he said. (quote) He told me that he was sad. (reported speech)
35. Learning and teaching verbal processes We should teach learners typical patterns of common verbs. Ex: He enjoys reading books. He failed to give her a gift. We should teach learners the rules of reported speech. Ex: He said that he had met her before. We should teach learners the concord of tenses. Ex: He said that he would do it later.
36. Analyze the participants in the following sentences: 1. Jack bought me a ruler. 2. They kicked the ball. 3. Romeo loved Juliet. 4. The tall boy touched the ceiling. 5. The well echoed her voice. 6. Margaret told the children a story. 7. The man curved the iron bar. 8. He lent me some money. 9. A girl throw a stone at him. 10. She boils the water.
37. Unit 5 Tense and time Time can be grouped in the following ways. 1. Tenses: Ex: I met the boy you had introduced. 2. Circumstantial adjuncts: Ex: One day he met a beggar on the street. 3. Binding conjunctions: Ex: He went home after he had taken a test. 4. Conjunctive adjuncts: Ex: He bought some books. Then he went home.
38. The English tense system 1. He worked. 2. He has worked. 3. He had worked. In number 1, the absolute tense is past; there is no relative tense. There may be absolute past time, such as yesterday, at 5 p.m. or last. In number 2, the absolute tense is present and the relative tense is past. The action took place in the past and extended to the present. There may be relative time, such as recently and just.
39. In number 3, the absolute tense is past and the relative tense is past. The action is located at a time before a time in the past and extends to a past time. There may be relative time, such as recently, just, the day before, and previously. There is a selection of three absolute tenses: - Present: location at the moment of speaking or writing. - Past: a time before the moment of speaking or writing. - Future: a time after the moment of speaking or writing.
40. Relative future BE + GOING TO = BE ABOUT TO = BE TO = WOULD Future in present is going to work Future in past was going to work Future in past in present has been going to work Future in past in past had been going to work Future in future will be going to work Future in past in future will have been going to work
41. Tense and modals - Present modals: can, may, will, shall - Past modals: could, might, would, should However, could, might, would, should can be used as separate modals rather than as past tense forms of the other modals.
42. Tense in nonfinite verb groups Finite verb groups can make such tense distinctions as has worked (past in present), had worked (past in past) and will have worked (past in future). Nonfinite verb groups have only having worked (relative past). Ex: Having worked hard, he felt very tired. Having worked on these materials, you will pass the exam easily.
43. Using tense Tense and process type What are you doing? (action) I’m observing what you are doing. (mental-action) I want you to be careful. (mental) You look very worried. (relational) You’re getting nervous again. (relational-change type)
44. Simple present with action processes These action processes are combined with simple present tense. They are called habitual, and timeless actions or general/universal actions. Ex: He usually goes to the pub. Stone sinks in the water. The train arrives at ten. (timetabled future) First he went to the warehouse (past time actions within narrative).
45. Continuous tenses with mental processes Mental processes in continuous tenses often carries the sense of beginning to or temporary (not permanent). Ex: She is believing him. She is wondering if he remembers her birthday.
46. Continuous tenses with relational processes Linking verb BE in continuous tenses suggests a kind of temporary behaviour. Ex: He is being stubborn. (behaving in a stubborn way). You are being smart. (behaving in a smart way).
47. Tenses in contexts Tense selections in narratives In a story (narrative), simple past is the main tense tangential with the previous event (past perfect), the following event (future in the past) or simultaneous events (past continuous). Ex: Last week I went to the countryside. I was fishing at a pond when I saw a boy. He had been wounded in a bush. I told him that I would take him to hospital.
48. The simple present tense may be used in the narratives when: A place which still exists is mentioned. Ex: Last week I went to Ganh Hao. Ganh Hao is a small town in Bac Lieu. The narrator introduces the story. Ex: This story takes place in the 20th century. The narrator wants to make the story more vivid. Ex: I step on a snake. At once it bites me on my calf. Luckily, my jeans are very tough, so I am unhurt.
49. Tense selections in descriptions Present simple is used to describe people, places and things. Ex: A toad lives in a cave by day and goes out by night. One action process with modal auxiliary may be used to describe specific individuals. Ex: Talking about places of interest in Vietnam, we can mention Thien Mu pagoda in Hue. To give some depth to description, we may use present perfect.
50. Ex: More and more visitors have been to Thien Mu pagoda. (meaning up to now) Tense selections in predictions Future tenses are used to predict events. Absolute future (with absolute time) Ex: He will visit DaLat next week. Future perfect (past in future) locates a change prior to the absolute time. Ex: The house will have finished before Tet.
51. Tense selections in conversation Tenses in conversation are rather flexible. A whole range of tenses can occur. Ex: A- You look happy. B- Yes, I won the lottery yesterday. A- Congratulations! B- I am thinking of buying something. A- What? B- Maybe, I will buy a car.
52. Different interpretations of tense In English grammar there are many tenses. Yet, based on inflection for present and past tenses, linguists claim that English has only two tenses. Present: work/works Sing/sings worked Sang Have worked = present tense + perfect aspect Are working = present tense + conti. aspect Processes viewed as a whole or complete are called perfective.
53. Processes viewed as a part or not complete are called imperfective. Note these distinctions: Perfect: Past process with an orientation to the present. Simple: Absolute time (at a time) Continuous: beyond the here and now
54. Learning and teaching tenses Vietnamese has no tenses, so our learners have considerable difficulty in learning English tense system. English insists on marking every finite verb group for absolute tense. Vietnamese has adverbs “đã”, “đang” and “sẽ” to show tenses; “rồi”, and “chưa” to indicate aspects. Each mentioned word may be used in the past, present or future.
55. Circumstantial Adjuncts of time There are three basic kinds of Circumstantial Adjuncts of time: duration (how long), location (when), and frequency (how often). Duration in time Ex: He has studied English for two years. (with preposition FOR) They’ve been waiting there nearly two hours now. (without any preposition)
56. Location in time Prepositions ON, IN, AT or adverb groups such as ONCE UPON A TIME, EVERY DAY, etc. may be used. Prepositions BEFORE, TILL, UNTIL, TO, and BY refer to a time before or leading up to a location in time. Prepositions FROM, AFTER, and SINCE refers to a time after or starting from a location in time.
57. Frequency in time Frequency is typically expressed by adverbs, adverb groups, and noun groups. Ex: He buys his clothes every year. They import flour annually. Relative frequency is expressed by adverbs of frequency. Ex: She rarely travels overseas. He often helps the poor.
58. Conjunctive Adjuncts of time Two parts of a text can be linked by Conjunctive Adjuncts of time. Ex: First they collected woods Then they made fire Finally they began to have dinner. Interpersonal Adjuncts of time A small number of Adjuncts express attitude toward the time location: ALREADY (earlier than might be expected), STILL (longer in duration than might be expected), and AT LAST (later than expected).
59. Exercise Use the correct tenses of the following processes: (finite or non-finite verbs) 1. Normally he is stupid, but he (be) wise today. 2. He wants (go) to the restaurant yesterday. 3. He wants (take) to the restaurant yesterday. 4. Mother (cook) dinner, and he can eat it now. 5. Mother (cook) dinner, and he has to wait for it now. 6. (live) in HCMC now, he has tried his best to study and work very hard.
60. Unit 6 Interpersonal function 1: Speech acts and mood Speech acts When using language, we not only make propositional statements about objects, entities, states of affairs and so on, but we also fufill functions such as requesting, denying, introducing, apologizing, etc. Speech act is an utterance as a functional unit in communication. (Richards et al, 1985: 265).
61. According to Graham Lock, there are five kinds of speech acts: Mood Speech act Example typically realized Declarative Statement They bought it. Interrogative Question Did they buy it? (Yes-no type) Interrogative Question What did they buy ? Imperative Directive Buy it. Exclamative Exclamation How nice it is!
62. Mood Normally declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamative moods typically realize the speech acts statement, question, directive, and exclamation, respectively. However, the mood of a clause can be identified simply from its structure. The interpretation of a speech act normally depends on structure, context and intonation. The typical relationships between mood and speech act can be skewed, creating what are called indirect speech acts.
63. Ex: Why don’t we drink some lemonade? This is in form of a WH question, however, it is not a question. In fact, it is a kind of suggestion. Therefore, it is a directive. Isn’t it a nice day? It is in interrogative mood, but it is not a question. It is an exclamation.
64. Mood structure The two functions Subject and Finite are vital to the structural realization of mood in English. Declarative and interrogative mood The difference between declarative and interrogative moods depends on the ordering of Subject and Finite. The basic system, where ^ means followed by, is as follows: Declarative: Subject ^ Finite Wh-interrogative: Wh-Finite ^Subject Yes-no interrogative: Finite ^Subject
65. In a verb group, the first constituent is Finite, the remaining constituents are predicator. SUBJECT FINITE PREDICATOR Ex: Henry can speak English. SUBJECT FINITE PREDICATOR Ex: Jack will be waiting for her then. FINITE SUBJECT PREDICATOR Ex: Will Jack be waiting for her then? Finite and Predicator are only one, as follows: SUBJECT FIN/PRE FIN/PRE SUBJ Ex: The day was nice. Was the day nice?
66. Imperative mood The clauses begin with a Predicator in V (base) form of the verb, with no Subject or Finite. Ex: Stand up. Close the windows. The subject is sometimes stated. Ex: You girls keep silent in class. For emphasis, the Finite auxiliary do may be used. Ex: Do close the windows.
67. Exclamative mood Exclamative mood clauses have the forms: + What-Object/Complement ^Subject ^Finite OBJECT SUBJECT FIN/PRE Ex: What dress you have! COMPLEMENT SUBJECT FIN/PRE Ex: What a genius you are! OBJECT SUBJECT FINITE PREDICATOR Ex: What cake you are making! Ex: What a car!
68. + How-Complement/Adjunct ^Subject ^Finite COMPLEMENT SUBJECT FIN/PRE Ex: How nice the day is! ADJUNCT SUBJECT FIN/PRE Ex: How beautifully she sings! Ex: How modern! How carefully!
69. Mood and polarity Clauses have two polarities: positive and negative. Negative particle NOT directly follows the Finite. Ex: He may not come here. Don’t you support me? Where won’t you live? Don’t look at me!
70. Questions Yes-no interrogative questions Yes-no interrogative mood clauses expect the addressee to assert or negate information. Ex: A- Do you like music? B- Yes, I do/No, I don’t. If the question has negative polarity, the answer NO confirms the information. Ex: A- Haven’t you been to Ha Noi? B- No, I haven’t.
71. Sometimes a declarative clause follows the answer NO in elliptical form. Ex: A- Do you like music? B- No, my wife does. Sometimes a full declarative clause repeats the information in the question. Ex: A- Is it a nice dress? B- Yes, it’s a nice dress.
72. Wh-interrogative questions Wh-interrogative mood clauses request specific pieces of information. Ex: A- what would you like to drink? B- Coke. A- Where will you go? B- Hai Phong. The addressee can even violate what he is expected to give. Ex: A- When will he go there? B- He won’t.
73. Tag questions A tag consisting of Finite ^Subject is added to a declarative mood clause to form tag questions. Ex: A- He is religious, isn’t he? B- No, he isn’t. The polarities in the declarative clauses and the tags are different. However, the polarities can be the same: Ex: A- The train was late, was it? B- Sure was.
74. It is implied that A was not on the platform but has surmised that B found the train late. If the tag had been negative, A would have gone to the platform and found his opinion true. Declarative mood questions Declarative mood clauses can sometimes realize the speech act of question. The intonation rises in this case. Ex: A- You saw a ghost? B- Yes, I did see it. The answer often confirms the information.
75. Directives A wide range of structural options is available for expressing directives. Imperative mood directives Besides commands or orders, the directness and strength of the directive may vary greatly. Instruction: Take a tablet every eight hours. Warning: Mind your head. Advice: Don’t stand in the rain too long.
76. Interrogative and declarative mood directives A modal auxiliary may be used in interrogative and declarative mood directives. Ex: You must go and apologize to him at once. Could you step aside? Would you girls stop talking! Responding, one may use a verbal compliance: Ex: Could you buy me a loaf of bread on the way home? Yeah, sure. or an apology for refusing: Ex: Sorry, I will go home late this evening.
77. Learning and teaching mood and speech acts Vietnamese and English have different ways of distinguishing statements from questions. Vietnamese: Bạn có hai con. English: You have two children. Vietnamese: Bạn có bao nhiêu con? English: You have how many children? Vietnamese: Điều này có nghĩa là nghèo English: This means poverty. Vietnamese: Điều này có nghĩa là gì? English: This means what?
78. YES following a negative question means a negative sentence while NO following a negative question means a affirmative sentence. Ex: Aren’t you hungry? Yes. (I’m not hungry) No. (I’m hungry)
79. Unit 7 Interpersonal function 2: Modality: deontic and epistemic Likelihood Likelihood includes the four following items: Modal auxiliaries Modal adjuncts Attributive clauses Mental process clauses of cognition
80. Modal auxiliaries of likelihood There are three levels of modals of likelihood: - High: Certainly You have won the lottery. You must be happy. - Mid: Probably A- Where’s Mai? B- She ought to be at school. Today’s Monday. - Low: Possibly A- Mai’s not at home. Where’s she? B- She may be at her club.
81. Notes: - High negative: Can’t Ex: You can’t be sad. (You have won the lottery) - Mid negative: Shouldn’t Ex: Mai shouldn’t be in the dormitory on Monday. - Low negative: May not Ex: Mai may not be in the market. - Mustn’t: Prohibition Ex: People mustn’t trade opium.
82. Deductions and predictions Predictions are based on a certain premise. They are typically about the future but can also be about the present or past. Deductions are based on direct or indirect evidence. They are typically about the present or past but can also be about the future. Deductions Predictions He won the lottery. He He didn’t win the lottery. must have been happy. He may have been sad. He wins the lottery. He The lights are turned on. must be happy. He may be at home.
83. He wins the lottery. If you put the fried fish He can’t be poor. there, the cat may eat it. Likelihood based on conditions There are two kinds of conditions: real and unreal. In real conditions, tenses are based on the time. In unreal conditions, tenses are one step back in the past. Ex: If I were in the US now, I would buy presents for you. (Now I am in VN and I will not give you present.)
84. Teaching conditions Usually, there are three types of conditions. The meanings of conditions are strictly based on the types: future possible, present unreal and past unreal). The information should be known, based on the specific types of conditions. It may be worth noting that a further type of conditional using SHOULD. Ex: Should you have any questions, please feel free to contact me. (Very formal)
85. Personal judgments of likelihood It is implied that the writer or speaker uses modals of likelihood to express some personal judgment. Expressions such as I think, I doubt, I am sure, etc. function more like modal adjunctions than like full mental or attributive clauses. Ex: I am sure that our living standard will be higher.
86. Impersonal judgments of likelihood Formal subject IT may be used to express impersonal judgments of likelihood. Then it removes the speaker or writer’s personal responsibility for judgment. Ex: It is inevitable that our living standard will be higher. It is important that students should not take weapons to school.
87. Requirement To express requirements, one uses modal auxiliaries, clauses with verbs such as permit and require, and clauses with Attributes such as necessary and advisable. Modal auxiliaries of requirement There are three levels of requirement High requirement: obligation or necessity Positive: We must obey the regulations. Negative: We must not violate the regulations.
88. Mid requirement: advice Positive: We should work hard. Negative: We should not stay up late. Low requirement: permission Positive: You may pick some guavas in the garden. Negative: You may not pick flowers in the garden. Note: Modal perfect can express past requirement.
89. Personal and impersonal judgments of requirement Clauses with verbs such as advise, require, forbid, expect, allow, permit can be used to make judgments of requirement. Ex: I allow you to eat this apple. (personal) You are allowed to eat this apple. (impersonal) Clauses with adjectives of requirement achieve more impersonal effect. Ex: It is compulsory for you to obey the regulations. (impersonal)
90. Other areas of modality Modality includes frequency, inclination, potentiality, and ability. Frequency Frequency expresses judgments about how often a state of affairs is. Ex: She’ll take your books whenever you’re away. (meaning often takes your books) That flavor can be very unpleasant. (meaning sometimes)
91. In teaching we should use adjuncts of frequency clearly instead of modal auxiliaries. Requirement expresses the strength of a directive while inclination expresses the strength of an offer to do something. Low inclination: I’ll finish the washing so that you do nothing. Mid inclination: I will tell you what the activity is. High inclination: I will give you some money and you can’t refuse.
92. Other ways of expressing inclination are: Low willingness: I am willing to mow the grass. Mid intention: I’m going to wash your clothes. High determination: I was determined to reach that top.
93. Ability and potentiality Can and be able to refer to ability. Ex: Jack can play the piano. Jack is able to play the piano. Can expresses potentiality. Ex: The direction of the storm can be changed. Could expresses past ability and potentiality. Ex: My father could type well. My village could produce more rice.
94. Could also combines with relative past tense (modal perfect). Ex: He could have passed the entrance exam to Medical University. Potentiality can be expressed impersonally. Ex: It is possible that she is learning now. It is possible to dry hay now. Conclusion: The same modals can be used to express different kinds of modal meanings. Learners face difficulties when controlling modality.
95. Modality, context, and speech act In different areas of modal meaning and contexts, a particular modal expression will vary significantly. Ex: You may sit down. The clause may be classified as low requirement (permission). In a context where a teacher says that clause to his students, the clause is an order which to be obeyed. Ex: He’s not here. He may be in the canteen.
96. Learning and teaching modality The modal auxiliaries can present three problems: (1) the same modal may be used to express different types of modal meanings, (2) different modals may express the same/overlapping modal meanings, and (3) the precise meaning or force of a modal may vary in different context. Simple modal auxiliaries should be for elementary learners, and the levels of modal auxiliaries should be increased for intermediate and advanced learners.
97. Identify expressions of modality in the following sentences and say which meaning (likelihood or requirement) is expressed in each case. Underline the expressions and write L for likelihood or R for requirement in the spaces provided. e.g. L It can’t be true. 1. ___ In case you should need any help, here’s my number. 2. ___ You should be learning English now. 3. ___ He must be in the cupboard. I can hear scratching noise.
98. 4. ___ I am sure that I will visit them again. 5. ___ You have to be quiet while I talk to her. 6. ___ Somebody must have taken the message. 7. ___ The police have been told that they may search newsrooms without warning. 8. ___ They hold a conference. This should give the members a greater opportunity to share the ideas. 9. ___ Animal lovers who think that hunting is cruel but do not subscribe to the extremist view should first ensure that they know all the facts. 10. ___The earth might be just as old as the moon.
99. Unit 8 Textual function: Theme and rheme Experiential meaning is represented by processes, participants and circumstances. Interpersonal meaning is expressed by many resources. A system of realizing textual meaning organizes these two kinds of meaning to produce clauses and sentences. In a paragraph, all mistakes have been corrected; however, the text still seems muddled. There are many ways to rearrange
100. clauses or sentences without changing the meanings. The cat ate the rat. The rat was eaten by the cat. It was the cat that ate the rat. It was the rat that the cat ate. What the cat did was ate the rat. Ate the rat, the cat did. The cat, it ate the rat. It was the rat that was eaten by the cat.  It was the cat that the rat was eaten by.  The cat did eat the rat.
101. The ten versions differ from each other and from the original clause in the textual meaning in the way where the same experiential and interpersonal meanings have been organized as a message.
102. Marked and unmarked word order The differences in textual meaning among the versions are in that the word order is the most usual or less usual. The word order which is used as a kind of default word order for declarative clauses are is called unmarked word order. The contrary is called marked word order. Ex: Thomas stood in the room. (unmarked) In the room stood Thomas. (Marked)
103. Theme and Rheme Theme is the point of departure/jumping-off point of the message in the clause. The remaining is called the rheme. The cat ate the rat in the kitchen. The rat was eaten by the cat in the kitchen. In the kitchen the cat ate the rat.
104. Marked and unmarked Themes When theme is the Subject, it is unmarked. Any Themes other than the subject, they are referred to as marked Themes. In yes-no interrogative mood the Finite is the unmarked Theme. In wh- interrogative mood the wh word is the unmarked Theme. Ex: Do you need anything? Where will you go? In imperative mood, the unmarked Theme is the Predicator. Ex: Close the door.
105. unless it is preceded by a Subject. Ex: You close the door. Selections of marked Themes A marked Theme is moved to the front of the clause. It is thematized. Ex: In 1890 Uncle Ho was born. The Circumstantial Adjunct in 1890 is thematized. Ex: This clause I wrote. The Object of the clause is thematized.
106. Thematized Objects and Complements In contrast or in emphasis, Objects or Complements are thematized when they are put in the front. Ex: Most of the clauses are extracted from the novels, but this clause I wrote. (contrast) Coffee I drank. (emphasis) A teacher I am and a teacher I will always be. Strange was the man. Note: They are called highly marked.
107. Thematized Circumstantial Adjuncts In English, thematized Circumstantial Adjuncts are more common than thematized Objects and Complements. Ex: In this chapter, we study Theme. In the following chapter, we study complex sentences. (Textual meaning) [time] In 1911, Uncle Ho left Vietnam for the way of national salvation. In 1941, he returned to the country. (the method of development) [time] In the living-room there are In the kitchen there are (the method of development) [place]
108. There are three kinds of themes: + Topical theme: the subject Ex: Jack is handsome. They often help us. + Interpersonal theme: showing attitude or feeling. Ex: Wow, you have such a nice dress. In my opinion, you should study hard. + Textual theme: linking the sentences in a text. Ex: Finally, the toad became a nice prince.
109. Absolute Themes Absolute Themes stand outside the clauses in order to provide the framework for interpreting the whole clause. Ex: The list he thinks he wants to mention the items bought in the supermarket. Phrases such as as for or concerning begin absolute Themes. Ex: The car has a nice color and an elegant shape. As for the engine, it can run very smoothly and fast.
110. Absolute Themes mark a transition to a topic of the next part of the text. (From color and shape to engine). Themes which may be repeated are called picked-up. Ex: Those students who I have mentioned have great ability, I will introduce one to you and you will find him excellent. They always get excellent marks. Concerning their behavior, they are always very good. Absolute and picked-up Themes are used to reintroduced previous topics.
111. Learning and teaching Theme-Rheme structures Thematic organization makes languages different. In Vietnamese, marked Themes are used commonly. Ex: Ở trường tôi gặp em. (Emphasis) Rarely is the Theme the Object. Ex: Độc lập chúng ta phải giành lấy. It is noted that if only unmarked themes are used, the text seems flat, monotonous and
112. sometimes rather childish. Ex: He stood up. He came to the window. He looked outside. He saw her on the street. Nonexperiential Themes When Conjunctive Adjuncts are in the beginning, they may be thematic (textual themes) or nonthematic (they are ignored). When modal Adjuncts are in the beginning, they are called interpersonal Themes. Ex: Therefore, they stayed at home and watched TV. Not surprisingly, he won the match.
113. A text with too many thematized Conjunctive Adjuncts can seem pedantic and ponderous. Ex: He learns very well. However, he is ugly. Thus, nobody loves him. In addition, he is poor.
114. Exercise: Analyze the theme and rheme: 1. Ouch, you step on my foot. 2. The bamboo survived the storm. 3. On the chest the baby sucks milk. 4. Today it is nice. 5. A bee bites her cheek.
115. Exercise: Are the underlined themes marked or unmarked? 1. Ouch, you step on my foot. 2. The bamboo survived the storm. 3. On the chest the baby sucks milk. 4. Today it is nice. 5. A bee bites her cheek.
116. Exercise: What kinds of Themes are the underlined units? Circle the correct choice. 1. Poor Jim, he must be out of his mind. a. Absolute Theme b. Picked up Theme c. Unmarked Theme 2. Jane, I’m truly sorry it didn’t work out. a. Textual Theme b. Interpersonal Theme c. Experiential Theme 3. Few are those who live to be seventy. a. Unmarked Theme b Marked Theme c. Non-experiential Theme
117. 4. As for dessert, we have ice-cream, fruit, and cake. a. Absolute Theme b. Picked up Theme c. Unmarked Theme 5. The key to the most difficult question seems wrong. a. Unmarked Theme b Marked Theme c. Non-experiential Theme
118. Information focus The Focus is the culmination of the new information. It is the tonics (tonic syllables). Other information is called given information. TONE GROUP 1 TONE GROUP 2 Ex: Jack took some f Tablets // and felt FINE. The tonics may be different according to the speaker’s intention. Ex: We take Jack to the REStaurant. We take JACK to the restaurant. WE take Jack to the restaurant.
119. Other ways of organizing the message Theme and the Focus are two important parts of organizing the message of a clause. However, voice selection, existential clauses, and clefting are other options for organizing the message. Voice selection ACTOR DIRECT OBJECT Ex: Jack bought the pen. GOAL PREP. OBJECT The pen was bought by Jack.
120. In the selection of active voice the Focus of information is the Actor. In the selection of passive voice, the speaker or writer thematizes participants such as Goals, Recipients, and Phenomena. The new information is the Theme. In the selection of passive voice, the Theme may not be switched. Ex: He stood in front of me and was hit by her. We use the passive when the person or thing that performs the action is unimportant. The clauses become Agentless, Actorless, Senserless, etc.
121. Learning and teaching passive voice Some languages thematize constituents more freely than English. Ex: Nước nấu rồi. Water boils already “The water has already been boiled.” The Subject/Actor may be present. Ex: Nước mẹ nấu rồi. Water mother boils already “The water mother has already boiled.”
122. In Russian the Actor may be shifted to the end of the clause without any change in the voice of the verb. Ex: Я люблю тебя. (I love you) тебя люблю Я. (You love I) Traditionally, teaching passive voice is simply a transformation of active voice. Ex: Kathy waters the flowers. The flowers are watered by Kathy.
123. Existential clauses In the structures “there is/are”, the Theme is there or a Circumstantial Adjunct, while the Existent appears in the Rheme and is the unmarked Focus of information. EXISTENT/FOCUS Ex: There are many books in the library. The Existent may be the Theme. Ex: Many books are in the library.
124. Clefting There are two types of clefting: it cleft and wh- cleft. It Clefts Noncleft: We saw Jack in the market. Cleft: It is in the market that we saw Jack. The focus is after the linking verb. In the above clause the Circumstantial Adjunct is focused on. However, other constituents are the Focus. Cleft: It is Jack that we saw in the market.
125. Wh- Clefts Wh- clefts are realized by wh-clauses. Noncleft: We saw Jack in the market. Cleft: Where we saw Jack is in the market. Commonly, the Identified/wh- clause comes first (the Theme); however, the order can be reversed. Noncleft: I will tell you the story of Lan and Diep. Cleft: What I will tell you is the story of Lan and Diep. Cleft: The story of Lan and Diep is what I will tell you. Like it- clefts, wh- clefts often involve contrast. Ex: What the beggar wants is not food but money.
126. Learning and teaching Clefts There are many ways to emphasize the constituents in the clauses. Clefts are one of them. In writing or speaking, clefts help focus on the important information.
127. Unit 9 Clause complexes Sentences in spoken and written language are different. Independent and dependent clauses Independent clauses can stand alone. Dependent clauses structurally depend on other clauses. Any sentence including more than one ranking clause is called a complex sentence. It is vital that each sentence must contain an independent clause, except the answer to a
128. question. Ex: When he had finished the work, he went home. “He went home” is an independent clause. Why are you late? (question) Because my bike broke down. (answer) Structural relationships between clauses Linking and binding are two kinds of structural relationships between clauses. Linking The clauses are in equal relationships. Sometimes the clauses can be reversed.
129. Ex: Jack likes music but Kathy likes films. Kathy likes films but Jack likes music. The logical relationship between the message in linked clauses depends on the chronological sequence. Ex: She went home, took off her coat and began to cook. I felt tired and went to bed early. (cause and effect)
130. Binding In binding, the clauses are in inequal relationships. A clause is dependent on another clause. A clause may be marked as a dependent clause in a number of ways: - By a binding conjunction such as when, if, because, although, after, as, etc. Ex: He walks as if he were sick. - By wh- words such as who, that, which, whose, whom, etc. Ex: I met the man whom you had mentioned.
131. - By word order Ex: Were he rich, he would buy an Audi now. - By a nonfinite clause Ex: She reads a book, lying on the floor. (without marking) When staying in Paris, she met Jack. (preceded by a binding conjunction) Despite poverty, he won a national prize. (with a prepositional phrase) A dependent clause may be in the front, middle or back of the independent clause.
132. Ex: Due to poverty, a student like him can’t study in Ho Chi Minh City. A student like him can’t study in Ho Chi Minh City, due to poverty. A student like him, due to poverty, can’t study in Ho Chi Minh City. Because he is poor, a student like him can’t study in Ho Chi Minh City. A student like him can’t study in Ho Chi Minh City because he is poor. A student like him, because he is poor, can’t study in Ho Chi Minh City.
133. Clause combining and textual meaning In linking, the clauses are equal and chronological and do usually not change the position. In binding, the clauses can change their positions. The first clause expresses the given information while the other is newsworthy. Ex: She finished her work and went home. She had finished her work before she went home. Before she went home, she had finished her work.
134. Learning and teaching linking and binding Linking independent clauses is relatively easy by putting two clauses into one sentence by a conjunction. However, some ellipses may be seen in linking clauses. Ex: She went to the shop and bought some food. (Subject ellipsis) He is tall and he is handsome. He is tall and handsome. (Subject and Finite ellipsis)
135. Sometimes learners overdo ellipsis: Ex: He learns excellently and an idol to her. Finite IS has been omitted in the second clause. Learners may use Conjunctive Adjunct as if they were linking conjunctions. Ex: She was reading a book meanwhile he was watching a film. (while is correct) Redundant conjunction may be used. Ex: Although she learns well, but she gets low marks. This is affected by Vietnamese learners’ mother tongue.
136. Adjuncts may be added to conjunction AND. Ex: She worked very hard, and meanwhile her husband gambled in a night club. Learners may use prepositions instead of conjunctions. Ex: He went home because of he ran out of money. Learners sometimes write fragments (incomplete sentences) Ex: He learns English well. Though he is poor.
137. In a finite dependent clause both Subject and Verb exist. In a nonfinite dependent clause both Subject and Verb disappear. Ex: While he was leaving Paris, he took a coat. While leaving Paris, he took a coat. In this case, intermediate forms may occur. Ex: While he leaving Paris, he took a coat. While was leaving Paris, he took a coat. Learners make mistakes in dangling structures. Ex: While leaving Paris, a storm reached his town. (While he was leaving Paris, a storm reached his town.)
138. Logical relationships between clauses According to Halliday, logical relationships can be classified into three types: elaboration, extension and enhancement. Elaboration Elaboration can be combined with both linking and binding to make the message in another clause clear with more details, examples, etc. Elaboration and linking Ex: Jack wanted to sing karaoke and he bought a hifi set.
139. Elaboration and binding with finite dependent clause Ex: He bought some tools, which helped him dig a tunnel. He bought some tools so that he could dig a tunnel. Elaboration and binding with nonfinite dependent clause Ex: She reads a book, lying on the floor.
140. Notes: - My sister, who trades in building materials, lives in Long An. (I have only one sister) - My sister who is a doctor lives in Long An. (I have other sisters. They are not doctors.)
141. Extension One clause may be extended by addition (and relationship), variation (instead relationship), and alternation (or relationship). Addition and linking Ex: She does not like music, nor does she like dance. Addition and binding with finite dependent clause Ex: Math is a natural subject, while English is a social subject.