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Bài giảng Tiếng Anh - Phonetics and Phonology - Trương Văn Ánh

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  1. PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY Mr. Ánh 1
  2. PART 1 PHONETICS Phonetics deals with the physical aspect of sounds. Phonetic transcription with allophones is used in this field of study. The speech organs are the parts of the body that are used to produce the sounds. The speech organs consist of: I- Articulators They are the movable parts to modify the air stream to produce different sounds. The articulators are: 2
  3. 1. Vocal cords in the larynx: Where sounds may be produced with vibration (voiced sounds) or without vibration (voiceless). The opening between the vocal cords is called the glottis. 2. Pharynx: The tube above the larynx. The epiglottis in the pharynx can be raised or lowered to open or close the way to the windpipe. 3. Tongue: The most important articulator because it is flexible and it can move to different places in the mouth. 3
  4. 4. Uvula: The extreme back of the roof of the mouth. It can be raised or lowered to open or close the passage to the nose. 5. Lower teeth (lower jaw): They are behind the lower lip. 6. Lower lip: It faces the upper lip. It is flexible and can be pressed against the upper lip or can be rounded or spread. 4
  5. II- Points of articulation: The fixed parts on the roof of the mouth towards which the articulators move to produce sounds. Points of articulation are: 7. Upper lip: Opposite the lower lip. 8. Upper teeth (upper jaw): opposite the lower lip. 9. Alveolar ridge/tooth ridge/gum: It is between the upper teeth and the hard palate. 10. Hard palate/roof of the mouth: It is the hard part of roof of the mouth. 11. Soft palate/velum: It is the soft part of roof of the mouth. 5
  6. III- Diagram of the speech organs: 6
  7. Vowels: - Long: i: u: ɜ: ɔ: a: - Short: i u e Ə „ ʌ ɑ Dipthongs: ai, ɔi, ei, eƏ, uƏ, IƏ, au, ƏU Tripthongs: eiƏ ƏuƏ aiƏ auƏ ɔiƏ 7
  8. Vowels Front Back Close i: u: Open ổ a: i) Rounded: u ii) Spread: i iii) Neutral: Ə 8
  9. Vowels are classified according to 5 standards: 1) Tongue height - Tongue height is the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and palate (= degree of opening of the mouth). - The tongue may be raised high, mid or low. - Correspondingly the position of the jaw may also be close, mid or open. 9
  10. 2) Tongue position: This means the front, central or back of the tongue is raised or lowered. 3) Lip rounding: Different shapes and positions of the lips. They may be rounded, unrounded or neutral. 4) Muscle tension: Tenseness in the muscle of the jaw and throat. The muscles may be lax or tense. 10
  11. Short vowels are often lax vowels meanwhile tense vowels are often long vowels. 5) Vowel length: There are: 5 long vowels: i: u: ɜ: ɔ: a: 7 short vowels: i u e Ə „ ʌ ɑ 11
  12. Back Front Central Close i u i: u: High Close-mid e Ɔ: Mid ɜ: Open-mid Ɛ Ɔ ʌ Low ɒ a: Open ổ Unrounded Rounded 12
  13. 1. /i/ high front unrounded tense vowel 2. /I / high front unrounded lax vowel 3. /e/ mid front unrounded lax vowel 4. /„ / low front unrounded lax vowel 5. /a/ low back rounded tense vowel 6. /o/ low back rounded lax vowel 7. /ɔ/ low back rounded tense vowel 8. /υ/ high back rounded lax vowel 9. /u/ high back rounded tense vowel 10. /ʌ/ mid central unrounded lax vowel 11. / Ə/ mid central unrounded lax vowel 12. / ɜ/ mid central unrounded tense vowel 13
  14. CONSONANTS AND THEIR CLASSIFICATION A consonant is a sound. In producing it, the air stream coming from the lungs is stopped, impeded, constricted or otherwise interfered within its passage to the outside air. Consonants are classed as VOICED if they are produced with vibration of the vocal cords and VOICELESS if they are produced without vibration. CLASSIFICATION OF CONSONANTS: Consonants are classified according to these four standards: 1. Places of articulation: 14
  15. a) Bi-labial: 2 lips are pressed together. Ex: /b, p, m/ b) Labio-dental: The upper teeth and lower lip come close together. Ex: /f, v/ c) Dental or interdental: The tip of the tongue is between the upper and lower teeth. Ex: /θ, ð / d) Alveolar: The tip of the tongue touches the alveolar ridge. Ex: /d, t, l, n, s, z, r/ e) Alveo-palatal: The front of the tongue touches the part between the alveolar ridge and the hard palate. 15
  16. Ex: /dʒ, tʃ, ʃ, ʒ/ f) Velar: The back of the tongue touches the soft palate or velum. Ex: / ŋ, k, g, w/ g) Palatal: The front of the tongue touches the hard palate. Ex: /j/ h) Glottal: The sound is produced with a friction noise in the glottis between the vocal cords. The glottis opens wide and the sound is voiceless. Ex: /h/ 2. Manner of articulation: The ways the airstream modifies the organs of speech. a) Plosive or stop: The air is stopped, then 16
  17. released with an explosive sound. Ex: /b, p, d, t, g, k/ b) Fricative: The air is constricted, causing friction when passing through the organs of speech. Ex: /v, f, ð, θ, z, s, ʒ , ʃ, h/ c) Affricative: It is the combination of the plosive and fricative. The air stream is stopped, then released slowly with friction. Ex: / dʒ, tʃ/ d) Nasal: The air passes through the nose when the uvula is lowered. Ex: /m, n, ŋ/ e) Lateral: The air passes out at both sides of the tongue. 17
  18. Ex: /l/ f) Gliding or semi vowel (consonant) or approximant: There is a gliding from one to another with little or no obstruction of the air stream. The tip of the tongue approaches the alveolar ridge. Ex: /w, r, j/ 3) Voicing: There is presence or absence of the vibration of the vocal cords. 18
  19. a) Voiced: When the vocal cords open and close rapidly: /b, d, v, g, ð, z, ʒ, dʒ, l, m, n, ŋ, r, w, h, j/ b) Voiceless: When the vocal cords open wide and there is the vibration of the vocal cords: /p, t, f, k, θ, s, ʃ, tʃ/ 4) Aspiration: /k, p, t/ a) Aspirated: At the beginning of the word. Ex: Cook, pen, ten b) Unaspirated: At the end of the word. Ex: Book, map, hat 19
  20. In general, there are 24 consonants in English: b, d, f, g, h, j, k, m, n, l, p, r, s, t, v, w, ð, ɵ, ʧ, ʤ, ʃ, ʒ, Z, ŋ. Place of articulation Bilabial Alveolar Velar Fortis p t k (Voiceless) Lenis b d g (Voiced) 20
  21. Consonants: Descriptions & practice 1. /b/: voiced bilabial stop 2. /p/: voiceless bilabial stop 3. /d/: voiced alveolar stop 4. /t/: voiceless alveolar stop 5. /g/: voiced velar stop 6. /k/: voiceless velar stop 7. /v/: voiced labio-dental fricative 8. /f/: voiceless labio-dental fricative 21
  22. 9. /ð/: voiced interdental fricative 10. /θ/: voiceless interdental fricative 11. /z/: voiced alveolar fricative 12. /s/: voiceless alveolar fricative 13. /ʒ/: voiced alveo-palatal fricative 14. /ʃ/: voiceless alveo-palatal fricative 15. /dʒ/: voiced alveo-palatal afffricate 16. /tʃ/: voiceless alveo-palatal afffricate 17. /h/: voiced or voiceless glottal fricative 18. /l/: voiced lateral 22
  23. 19. /m/: voiced bilabial nasal 20. /n/: voiced alveolar nasal 21. /ŋ/: voiced velar nasal 22. /r/: voiced alveolar semi-vowel 23. /j/: voiced palatal semi-vowel 24. /w/: voiced velar semi-vowel 23
  24. Syllabic consonants Syllabic consonants are the ones which can form syllable without vowels. Ex: table /’teibl/ They occur in the following cases: + Alveolar /t, d, s, z, n/ + le, al, el, on, en: 1. t + le: bottle, cattle 2. t + al: petal 3. t + on: button 4. d + le: muddle, coddle 5. d + al: pedal 24
  25. 6. d + el: model 7. d + en: sudden 8. s + le: wrestle, castle 9. s + el: parcel 10. z + le: nozzle 11. z + al: nasal 12. n + el: kernel + Bilabial /p, b/ + le, al, el, on, en 13. p + le: couple, people 14. p + al: papal 15. p + en: happen 25
  26. 16. b + le: trouble, bubble 17. b + el: Babel 18. b + on: ribbon + Velar /k, g/ + le, al, on, en, an: 19. k + le: pickle 20. k + al: mechanical 21. k + en: thicken 22. g + le: struggle 23. g + al: frugal 24. g + on: wagon 26
  27. 25. g + an: toboggan + Labio-dental /f, v/ + en: 26. f + en: often 27. v + en: seven 28. tr-: history /’histƏri/ or /’histri/ 29. dr-: wanderer /’wɔndƏrƏ/ or /’wɔndrƏ/ 27
  28. VOICING AND CONSONANTS FORTIS & LENIS CONSONANTS 1. Introduction: 1. We have voicing when there is a vibration of the vocal cords. 2. When consonants have different positions, we have different productions of the words. 3. The voiceless /p t k/ are produced with more force than the voiced /b d g/. 28
  29. Therefore /p t k/ are sometimes called FORTIS meaning STRONG and /b d g/ are then called LENIS meaning WEAK. 3. Fortis and Lenis consonants have an effect on the sounds before and after them and may change a voiceless sound into a voiced one or vice versa. Ex: /b d g/ are lenis consonants. They are sometimes fully voiced, sometimes partly voiced and sometimes scarcely voiced at all (in initial & final position.) 29
  30. When they are devoiced, they become voiceless. Therefore voicing is not a good distinctive feature; it is aspiration that distinguishes /p t k/ from /b d g/. 2. Voicing and aspiration of consonants in different positions A. The English plosive: /p t k/ and /b d g/. All six plosives can occur in: 1) Initial position (C V) 30
  31. 1. no voicing=voiceless a/ Fortis consonants 2. audible and clear plosion /p t k/ 3. aspirated Ex: pee, top, cope 1. little voicing: voiceless b/ Lenis consonants 2. weak plosion /b d g/ 3. unaspirated Ex: bee, deer, green 31
  32. 2) Final position (V C) 1. no voicing= voiceless a/ Fortis consonants 2. weak plosion /p t k/ 3. little aspiration 4. effect on vowel: shorter Ex: neat, tap, leak 1. very little voicing=voiceless b/ Lenis consonants 2. weak position /b d g/ 3. unaspirated 4. effect on vowel: longer Ex: need, tab, league 32
  33. 3) Medial position (C V C) 1. no voicing = voiceless a/ Fortis consonants 2. audible plosion & aspirated if they are in stressed syllables Ex: repộl, retộll, recỳr 3. weak plosion & unaspirated if they are in unstressed syllables Ex: hỏppy, lộtter, lớnking 33
  34. 1. much voicing = voiced b/ Lenis consonants 2. weak plosion /b d b/ 3. unaspirated Ex: unbar, dundo, ungainly ladder, digger. B. Effects of fortis & lenis plosive consonants on other sounds & on themselves. 1) Lenis consonants (plosives) a/ Initial and final lenis consonants are usually pronounced with very little or no voicing, that is, they are devoiced or they become voiceless. 34
  35. Ex: deer, green, bee, need, tab, league b/ However, they are usually fully voiced in medial position, especially when they are surrounded by voiced sounds. Ex: elbow, unbar, undo, ungainly 2) Fortis consonants (plosives) a/ Final fortis consonants shorten their preceding. + Vowels: plate [phleit], bark [ba:k] + Continuant consonants l, m, n: belt [belt], bump [bʌmp], bent [bent], bank [b„ŋk] 35
  36. b/ Initial fortis consonants make their following vowels which are always voiced continuant consonant (r w j) lose their voicing: + Initial fortis aspirated consonants + partly devoiced vowels. Ex: Put [phut] + Initial fortis aspirated consonant + devoiced (l r w j) Ex: play [phlei], tray [threi], quick [khwik], cue [khju:], straight [streit]. 36
  37. + Initial fortis unaspirated consonant + devoiced (l r w j) Ex: splendid [‘splendid] spread [spred] square [skweƏ], skewer [skju:Ə] C. The English fricative: There are nine: 1. are voiceless 1) Fortis fricatives 2. are articulated with greater /f θ s ʃ/ force than the lenis ones and their friction noise is louder. 3. shorten their preceding vowel 37
  38. Ex: laugh [laf], death [deθ], kiss [kis], bush [buʃ] 1. are pronounced with very little or no voicing (are devoiced or become voiceless - in initial position (CV) 2) Lenis fricatives Ex: vet [vet], this [δis], zoo [zu:] /v δ z ʒ/ - in final position (CV) Ex: five [faiv], booth [ bu:δ] dose [dƏU z], beige [beiʒ] 2. are fully voiced in medial position (VCV) 38
  39. Ex: television [thelƏviʒn], closet [klƏU zit] h breathing [bri:δiŋ], closure [k lƏU zƏ] 1. when h occurs between 3) The glottalfricative h voiced sounds: ahead, greenhouse, it is voiced. 2. h + w is a voiceless fricative: which, whale, why D) The English Affricates ʧ & ʤ 1. are voiced sounds. ʧ & ʤ 2. Initial ʧ is slightly aspirated 3. Final ʧ shortens its preceding vowels. 39
  40. E) The Lateral l Devoiced l, follows p or k at the beginning of a stressed syllable. Ex: play [phlei], clever [khlevƏ] F) The Alveo Palatal Aproximant r 1. continuant and voiced r 2. preceded by p t k at the beginning of a syllable, it is voiceless and slightly fricative Ex: press [phres], stress [stres], cress [kres] 40
  41. G) The Palatal Approximant j and the Bilabial Approximant w: 1. continuant & voiced j & w 2. are devoiced and slightly fricative when preceded by p t k at the beginning of a syllable. Ex: pure /pjuƏ/ [phjuƏ], queue /kju:/ [khju:], twin /twin/ [thwin], quin /kwin/ [khwin] 41
  42. THE ENGLISH SYLLABLE 1. Introduction: When we combine vowels, diphthongs and consonants we have different syllables. The number of the syllables in a word depends on the number of vowels. In other words, a syllable must contain at least a vowel. Ex: ah /a/, are /a/, or /ɔ/, err /ɜ/ 42
  43. 2. Definition: A syllable is a unit in speech longer than a sound but shorter than a word. Ex: The word writer has 2 syllables /rai/ + /tƏ/. /rai/ is a syllable longer than the sound /r/ or /ai/ but shorter than the word writer itself. 3. The structure of a syllable A syllable usually consists of: 1. a peak (vowel). 43
  44. 2. ± (with or without) onset and coda consonant(s). Ex: WRITER /rai tƏ/ BOOK /b u k/ o p op o p c 4. Analysis of the Internal structure of the English syllable The maximum phonological structure of the English syllable may be as follows: The symbol is ~) 44
  45. Onset Consonants peak Coda Consonants Pre-initial initial post-initial Vowel Pre- Final Post- Post- Post- final final 1 final 2 final 3 S L, R, W, J l, s m, n, ŋ ▪ Pre-initial + initial s + mell: smell /smel/ s + now: snow /snƏU/ ▪ Initial + post initial c + lay: clay /klei/ t + ray: tray /trei/ 45
  46. q +uick: quick /kwik/ p +ure: pure /piuƏ/ ▪ Pre-initial + initial + post initial s p t k l r w j spl: splay str: string skw: squeak ▪ Pre-final m, n, ŋ, l, s + final bump, bent, bank, belt, ask ▪ Final + post final s, z, t, d, θ bets, beds, backed, bagged, eighth 46
  47. ▪ Pre-final + final + post final helped, banks, bonds, twelfth ▪ Final + post final 1 + post final 2 fifths, next, lapsed ▪ Pre-final + final + post final 1 + post final 2 twelfths, prompts ▪ Final + + post final 1 + post final 2 + post final 3 sixths, texts. 5. The analysis chart 1. One syllable word: 47
  48. ~ O R P C 2. Two syllable word: word ~ ~ O R O R P C P C 48
  49. 6. Illustrative examples 1. One-syllable words: squealed and eighths ~ O R P C s k w i l d Pre- initial post peak pre- final initial initial final 49
  50. ~ R P C ei t θ s Peak final post- post- final 1 final 2 50
  51. 2. Multi-syllable words: extreme and temperature Word ~ ~ R R P C O P C i k s t r i m Peak final Pre- initial post peak final initial initial 51
  52. Word ~ ~ O R O R P C ~ O I P I t e m p r I ʧ Ə Intial peak final initial post peak initial p 52
  53. Phonemes and allophones 1. What is a phoneme? 1) A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound in a language which can distinguish 2 words. 2) For example: a/ In English, the words PAN and BAN differ only in their initial sound: PAN begins with /p/ and BAN with /b/. 53
  54. b/ BEN and BIN differ only in their vowels: /e/ and /i/. 3) Therefore /p b e i/ are phonemes of English. The number of phonemes varies from one language to another. English is often considered to have 44 phonemes: 24 consonants and 20 vowels. 2. What is an allophone? 1) An allophone is any of the different forms of a phoneme. 54
  55. 2) For example: In English, when the phoneme /p/ occurs at the beginning of words like PUT /put/ and PEN /pen/, it is said with a little puff of air. That is, it is aspirated. [ph]. 3) But when /p/ occurs in words like SPEND /spend/ and SPELL /spel/ it is unaspirated. [po] 4) Both the aspirated [ph] in PEN and the unaspirated [p] in SPELL have the same phoneme function. That is, they are both heard and identified as [p] and not as [b]. They are both ALLOPHONES of the PHONEME [p] > ([ph] and [po]. 55
  56. 3. The difference between a phoneme and an allophone. 1) A phoneme is a meaning-distinguish sound in a language. If we substitute one sound for another in a word and there is a change of meaning, then the 2 sounds represent different phonemes. Ex: tie and die. They are not allophones. 2) Otherwise if we substitute allophones, we have different pronunciation of the same word. 56
  57. Ex: Phoneme [t] has got 2 allophones. [th] aspirated as in TAPE. [to] unaspirated as in LETTER. 3) Phonemes are transcribed phonemically in slant bars / / and allophones are transcribed phonetically in square brackets [ ]. 4) As a result of this, we have 2 kinds of transcription: narrow transcription (phonetic transcription) and broad transcription (phonemic transcription). 57
  58. 4. English phonemes and allophones A. Consonants [po] unaspirated after /s/: speak, span 1) [p] (o : unaspirated mark) [ph] aspirated elsewhere: pen, map (h : pronounced with aspiration) [bo] final position: rib 2) [b] (o : pronounced without voicing, voiceless mark [b] elsewhere: bag 58
  59. [t] after /s/: stood 3) [t] [th] aspirated, elsewhere: ten h [t o] before /δ θ/: eighth /eitθ/ (o pronounced with tip between teeth) [d] elsewhere: decide 4) [d] [d] before dental sound /δ θ/ breadth [do] final position: decide 59
  60. [+kh] before front vowels: keep (+ : voiced) 5) [k] [-kh] before back vowels: coop (- : devoiced) [k] after the phoneme /s/: sky [kh] elsewhere: cake [go] final position: bag 6) [g] [g+] before front vowels: geese [g-] before back vowels: goose [g] elsewhere: revolve 60
  61. 7) [v] [vo] final position: revolve [v] elsewhere: revolve 8) [δ] [δo] in initial & final position: this, booth [δ] in medial position: breathing 9) [z] [zo] in initial & final position: zoo, dose [z] in medial position: closet dark [l] before consonants: milk devoiced [lo] after /p.k/: play, clock 10) [l] [l] before dentals: health syllable [l] after t n b d: bottle tunnel, trouble clear [l] elsewhere or before vowels: lake 61
  62. 11) [r] [ro] after voiceless consonants: pray [r] elsewhere: right 12) [n] [n] before dentals: month [n] elsewhere: nine 13) [m] [m] before f: nymph / nimf [m] elsewhere: mine B. Vowels & diphthongs 1) Diacritics show the allophones of vowel and diphthong phonemes. : > long vowels & diphthongs ~ > long & short vowel or diphthongs, before nasals. 62
  63. o > long vowels or dipthongs shortened by the following fortis consonants /p t k/. v > short vowels or diphthongs shortened by the following fortis consonants. 2) For examples: [i:] elsewhere: seed [si:d] [i] [ĩ] before nasals: seen [sĩ:n] [io] long I before fortis consonants /p t k/: seat [sio] [ĭ] short i before fortis consonants /p t k/: lip [lĭp] 3) Transcription: peat (spelling) phonemic /pit/ phonetic [phiot] 63
  64. ASSIMILATION 1. Definition. - Assimilation is the influence of one phoneme upon another neighboring phoneme, so that they become more alike. 2. Notes about assimilation. 1) Assimilation is more likely to be found in rapid, casual speech and less likely in slow, careful speech. 64
  65. 2) Assimilation affects consonant only. 3) Assimilation may occur: a/ across word boundaries or between words: light blue. b/ across morpheme boundaries: beds, hits, looked. Fortis: cats, jumps, Pat’s Lenis: dogs, runs, Pam’s c/ within a morpheme (assimilation of place) or word. 65
  66. Ex: bump /bʌmp/ (bilabial) tenth /tenθ/ (dental) hunt /hʌnt/ (alveolar) bank /b„ŋk/ (velar) 3. Kinds of assimilation across word boundaries 1) In terms of regressive assimilation: Cf > Ci the direction (cons. final > cons. initial) of change progressive assimilation: Cf < Ci 66
  67. 2) In terms of Assimilation of place: Cf > Ci the ways in Assimilation of manner: Cf > Ci which Cf Ci change (Only regressive) 4. Progressive & regressive assimilation 1) Progressive assimilation: When the latter is affected to become the former in some ways. Ex: in the /in ðƏ/ /innƏ/ 2) Regessive assimilation: When the former is affected to become the latter in some ways. 67
  68. Ex: one more /wʌn mɔ/ > /wʌmmɔ/ 5. Three other kinds of assimilation 1) Alveolar + bilabial > bilabial (regressive ass.) p Ex: right place /raip pleis/ t + b p [p] m white bird /waip bɜd/ [p] p Ex: hard path /hab paθ/ d + b b [b] m good boy /gub bɔi/ [b] 68
  69. p Ex: gone past /gƏUm past/ n + b m [m] m ten men /tem men/ [m] 2) Alveolar + velar > velar (regressive) k Ex: white coat t + k [k] g that girl [k] 69
  70. k Ex: bad cold d + g [g] g bad gate [g] k Ex: one cup n + ŋ [ŋ] g main gate [ŋ] 70
  71. 3) Alveolar + palato-alveolar/palatal > palato- alveolar/palatal (regressive) ʃ Ex: nice shoes s + ʃ [ ʃ ] j this year [ ʃ ] ʃ Ex: those shops z + ʒ [ʒ] j Where’s yours [ʒ] 71
  72. B. Assimilation of manner of articulation 1) Plosive + fricative/nasal > fricative/nasal (regr.) s > s Ex: that side [s] t + z > z that zoo [z] n > n that night [n] 72
  73. s > s Ex: good song [s] d + z > z bad zone [z] n > n good night [n] 73
  74. 2) Plosive/nasal + fricative > plosive/nasal (prog.) t t Ex: get them [t] d + ð d read these [d] n n in the [n] 74
  75. C. Assimilation of voicing in consonants 1) Lenis + fortis > fortis (regressive; lenis /b d g/ /p t k/ disappears) b + p > p Ex: rob Peter [p] d + t > t bad tongue [t] g + k > k big car [k] 2) Fortis + lenis > no assimilation because fortis becomes unaspirated sit down black dog [to] [d] [ko] [d] 75
  76. Elision and linking 1. Elision or disappearance of sounds. A. Definition Elision is the complete disappearance of a sound. Elision is typical of rapid casual speech. Foreign learners do not need to learn to produce elisions, but the perception of elision is important. B. Elision inside English words. 76
  77. 1) Elision inside English words has been taken place in the past, resulting in the following normal forms: grandmother /grổnmʌðƏ/ handsome / hổnsƏm/ castle /casl/ postman pƏUsmƏn/ draughtsman /drafsmƏn/ family /fổmli/ garden /gadn/ 77
  78. Edinburgh /’ednbrƏ/ awful /’ɔfl/ evil /’ivl/ interest /’intrƏst history /’histri/ 2) In other cases, there are two possibilities and you can use whichever you find easiest. generous /’ʤenƏrƏs/ / ’ʤenrƏs/ pattern /’pổtƏn/ / ’pổtn/ deliberate /dilibƏrƏt/ / dilibrƏt/ 78
  79. probably /prɔbƏli/ /prɔbli/ properly /prɔpƏli/ /prɔpli/ often /ɔfƏn/ /ɔfn/ kindness /kaindnis/ /kainis/ asked /askt/ /ast/ clothes /klƏUðz/ /klƏUz/ C. Rules of Elision 1) Stop fortis /p t k/ aspirated + weak vowel /i or Ə/ disappears 79
  80. Ex: today potato /thdei/ /phteitƏU/ 2) Weak vowel /i or Ə/ disappears + syllabic consonants /n l r/ Ex: canal correct connect /knổl/ /krekt/ /knekt/ 3) Stop + stop + stop or stop + stop + fricative disappears disappears Ex: acts scripts looked back stopped killing /ổks/ /skrips/ /luk bổk/ /stɔp kiliŋ/ 80
  81. stop 4) - st - + nasal - s – fricative last time last man last song s t s m s s stop - ft - + nasal - f - fricative left door left knee left shoe 81
  82. nasal 5) – nd - + stop lenis - n - kind nurse canned bacon - md - + nasal - m - stop lenis skimmed milk seemed good 6) Loss of final /v/ in OF + consonant: Ex: Lots of them Waste of money s Ə ð 82
  83. But: I think of exams. Əv ͜ i II. LINKING A. Definition - Linking happens when we link words together, usually for ease of pronunciation. Ex: Thousands of people. z͜ Əv He eats and drinks. s͜ Ən 83
  84. Learners of English must be made aware of the problems that they will meet in listening to colloquial, connected speech. B. Cases of linking: 1) Vowel-to-vowel: Ex: Very͜ interesting The story͜ is A lovely͜ ice cream The͜ end 2) Stop-to-stop consonants: Ex: That’s a bad͜ dog Where’s the red͜ door Put͜ ten in the box Stop͜ pushing 84
  85. 3) Consonant-to-vowel: a/ Stop-to-vowel: Ex: Drink͜ a cup͜ of tea Put͜ it͜ on b/ Fricative/affricate-to-vowel: Ex: Don’t crash͜ into anything I want to move͜ into a flat with some friends. c/ Continuant Ex: Pull͜ over turn͜ on When͜ I Where͜ I 4) Linking /r/ Final r + initial vowel. It occurs in the word’s spelling. Ex: her͜ own for͜ ever here͜ are 85
  86. 5) Intrusive /r/: Letter a + vowel. It occurs in the word’s spelling. Ex: media͜ event Australia͜ and Africa ri rổ Formula͜ A rei 6) Intrusive /j/ Ex: the͜ other my͜ aunt they͜ are j j j 7) Intrusive /u/ Ex: go͜ in two͜ others u u 86
  87. WORD STRESS I. Definition: - Stress is the degree of force used in producing a syllable. - There are three types of stress in English: word, phrase and sentence stress. - There are four degrees of stress: primary, secondary, tertiary and weak stress. - Following are some remarks about English word stress. 87
  88. II. Stress in simple words - A simple word is a word which consists of a single free base/root: house, honest, etc. - All words of more than one syllable are stressed. A. Two-syllable words 1) Two-syllable verb: - If the second syllable of the verb contains a long vowel or diphthong or if it ends with more than one consonant, that second syllable is stressed. 88
  89. Ex: applý, arrớve, attrỏct, assớst - If the second syllable contains a short vowel and one or no final consonant, the first syllable is stressed. Ex: ộnter, ộnvy, úpen, ộqual - If the second syllable contains /ƏU/, it is also unstressed. Ex: fúllow, búrrow Exception: permớt, admớt, commớt 2) Two-syllable adjectives: - They are stressed the same as two syllable 89
  90. verbs. Ex: devớne, corrộct, alớve, lúvely, ộven, húllow - exceptions: húnest, pộrfect (The first syllable is stressed though they end with 2 consonants). 3) Two-syllable nouns: - If the second syllable contains a short vowel, the stress will usually come on the first syllable. Ex: estỏte, ballúon, desớgn 4) Two-syllable adverbs and prepostions: 90
  91. They are stressed the same as verbs and adjectives. B. Three-syllable words. 1) Three-syllable verbs: - If the last syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, that syllable will be unstressed, and stress will be placed on the preceding syllable. Ex: encúunter, detộrmine 91
  92. - If the last syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong and ends with more than one consonant, that final syllable will be stressed. Ex: entertỏin, resurrộct 2) Three-syllable nouns - If the last syllable contains a short vowel or /ƏU/, it is unstressed and if the syllable preceding this final syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong or if it ends with more than one consonant, that middle syllable will be stressed. 92
  93. Ex: mimosa /mim’ƏUzƏ/ disaster /dizỏstƏ/ potato/pƏtộitƏu/ synopsis /sin’ɔpsis/ - If the last syllable contains a short vowel and the middle syllable contains a short vowel and ends with not more than one consonant, both final and middle syllables are unstressed and the first syllable is stressed. Ex: quantity /kw’ɔntiti/ emperor /’empƏrƏ/ cinema /’sinƏmƏ/ custody /’kʌstƏdi/ 93
  94. - If the last syllable contains a long vowel or diphthong and/or ends with more than one consonant, the first syllable will be stressed. The last syllable is usually quite prominent so that in some cases it could be said to have secondary stress. Ex: alkali /lklai/ stalactite /stltait/ intellect /’intlekt/ marigold /mrigld/ 3) Three-syllable adjectives: They are stressed the same as three- syllable nouns. 94
  95. Ex: úpportune /’ɔpƏtjun/ dộrelict /dộrƏlikt/ ỏnthropoid /’ổnθrƏpɔid/ ớnsolent /ớnsɔlƏnt/ III. Stress in complex words: A complex word is a word which consists of a bound / free base + an affix. Ex: careful, dishonest, worker, prelude, terminate, rupture Affixes will have effects on word stress. 95
  96. 1) Prefixes and stress - Stress in words with prefixes is governed by the same rules as those of words without prefixes. Ex: semi-detỏched, semi-cúnscious - But it is also irregular. Ex: sộmi-circle, sộmibreve 2) Suffixes and stress 1. Suffixes carrying primary stress themselves: AIN: entertaớn, ascertaớn. 96
  97. EE: refugộe, evacuộe EER: mountainộer, voluntộer ESE: Portuguộse, journalộse ETTE: cigarộtte, launderộtte ESQUE: picturộsque, grotộsque IQUE: unớque, technớque 2. Suffixes that do not affect stress: ABLE: cúmfort > cúmfortable AGE: ỏnchor > ỏnchorage AL: refỳse refỳsal 97
  98. EN: wide > wớden FUL: wúnder > wúnderful ING: amỏze > amỏzing ISH: dộvil > dộvilish LIKE: bird > bớrdlike LESS: púwer > púwerless LY: hỳrried > hỳrriedly MENT: pỳnish > pỳnishment NESS: yộllow > yộllowness OUS: púison > púisonous 98
  99. FY: glúry > glúrify WISE: úther > útherwise Y: fun > fỳnny 3. Suffixes that influence stress in the base: a/ Primary stress on the last syllable of the base: EOUS: advỏntage > advantỏgeous GRAPHY: phúto > photúgraphy IAL: prúverb > provộrbial 99
  100. IC: clớmate > climỏtic ION: pộrfect > perfộction IOUS: ớnjure > injỳrious ITY: trỏnquil > tranquớlity IVE: rộflex > reflộxive b/ The suffixes: ANCE, ANT, ARY - A single-syllable base + ANCE, ANT, ARY: The stress is on the first syllable. Ex: Sộrvant bớnary 100
  101. - A two-syllable base +ANCE, ANT, ARY: The stress is on the second syllable of the base if this syllable contains a long vowel or a diphthong or if it ends with more than one consonant. Ex: importance /impɔ:tns/ centenary /sentớ:nƏri/ - Otherwise, the first syllable of the base receives the stress. Ex: consonant /k’ɔnsƏnƏ nt/ military /mớlitƏri/ 101
  102. IV. Stress in word-class pairs: There are pairs of 2-syllable words with the same spelling which have stress on the first syllable when they are nouns or adjectives and on the second syllable when they are verbs. Noun or adjective Verb Ex: rộbel rebộl prộsent presộnt pộrfect perfộct ộxport expúrt 102
  103. V. Stress in compound words: - A compound word is a word which consists of 2 free bases. Ex: housework, ice cream, desk clerk - Different ways of writing compound words * as one word: armchair, sunflower * with words separated by a hyphen: gear- change, fruit-cake * with two words separated by a space: desk lamp, battery charger. 103
  104. - Types of compound words Stress patterns 1. Noun+noun: typewriter Stress on the first elem 2. Adj+noun+ed: bad-tempered second 3. Number+noun: second-class second 4. Compounds functioning as adverbs: down-stream second 5. Adverb+2nd element (as verbs): ill-treat, down-grade second 104
  105. VI. Stress in words groups (phrases or sentences) - Picture words (content words) are usually stressed - Grammatical words (function words) are usually not stressed. - Stress-moving: bad-tộmpered > bỏd-tempered tộacher 105
  106. Phrase and sentence stress I. Introduction: 1) To mark word stress, we use only one degree of stress i.e. the primary stress (‘). To show the stress of a phrase or sentence, four degrees of stress ( ‘ ^ ` ˘ ) are used. 2) Four degrees of stress: - Primary stress : ‘ - Secondary stress: ^ 106
  107. They are called major stress. - Tertiary stress: ` - Weak stress : ˘ 3) The general rule of phrase and sentence stress: - Content words (nouns, demonstratives, adjectives, adverbs, verbs) often receive the major stress meanwhile function words (prepositions, auxiliaries, conjunctions and pronouns) usually carry the minor stress. 107
  108. - The primary stress is put on the most important word in a phrase or sentence. And there is only one primary stress in each phrase or sentence. II. The use of the 4 degrees of stress: A. The uses of ˘: 1. Unstressed syllable: cŏntớnue 2. Title: Măss Whớte 3. a, an, the, some: ăn ộlĕphănt 4. pronoun IT as object: ĕxchỏnge ĭt 5. modal CAN & óuilỉay BE in affirmative 108
  109. sentences: Wố wĕre wúndĕring. B. The ues of `: 1. subject pronouns & contractions: Thốy’re cúmĭng. 2. posessives: mỳ ŏccǔpỏtĭon. 3. prepositions: wỡth Júhn 4. all modals & auxiliaries in questions: Mày è rộad ĭt 5. all modals & auxiliaries in affirmative sentences except BE & CAN: 109
  110. è mỡght wúrry (but: è căn cúme) 6. the second element in a compound noun: úffice mànăgĕr scớĕnce tốachĕr 7. phrasal verbs: Shố tựrned ún Shố tựrned ĭt ún. Shố tựrned ȏn thĕ lớght. 8. object pronouns except IT: cỏll ựs but: gột ĭt 110
  111. C. The uses of ^: 1. material nouns in compound nouns: cȏttŏn shớrt 2. adjective modifying a noun ≠ adjective in a compound noun: blỏckbũard ≠ blõck búard 3. descriptive and numeral adjectives: lõrge cúntĭnĕnt fợve schúols 4. verb-noun object in affirmative sentences & questions: sờe Júhn Dỡd yũu stỷdy thĕ lộssŏn? 111
  112. 5. verb-gerund: stụp rộadĭng stụp rộadĭng thĕ pỏpĕr 6. verb-adverb of time, place, manner: sợgn hộre 7. adverb of frequency: sờldŏm wộnt 8. adverb of intensity: quợte gúod 9. nouns & compound nouns as subjects: Thĕ grụcĕry stũre ĭs úpĕn 10. the word NOT in full form & in contraction: Hố’s nụt cúmĭng. Hố ợsň’t cúmĭng 112
  113. 11. the word PLEASE: Plờase fớnd ĭt. 12. question words: Whờn dỡd yũu ărrớve? 113
  114. ENGLISH INTONATION There are three basic English tunes. - Falling intonation - Rising intonation - Sustained intonation. (combination of tunes 1 + 2) FALLING INTONATION I. Uses of falling intonation (tune 1) The falling intonation is used in the following cases: 114
  115. 1) Statements. 2) Wh-questions. 3) Imperatives. II. How to describe it? Following are the 2 steps: 1) Intonation markings: Identiying the tonic syllables by using the intonation markings. 2) Graphic description: Notice that: a/ The voice descends step-wise on each stressed syllable. Unstressed syllables are 115
  116. on the same level as the preceding stressed syllable. b/ To avoid monotony because of a continuous descent, you can make your voice rise at any convenient stressed syllable (optional rising mark: ) but not as high as the first stressed syllable. c/ For longer statements, break them into different tunes 1(This vertical stroke I shows the completion of one tune). 116
  117. III. Illustrative examples: 1) Statements: I am surprised that you haven’t forgot me. . . - 2) Wh-questions: Where did you put my hat? - 3) Imperatives: Shut the door. - 117
  118. RISING INTONATION l. Uses of rising intonation (tune 2) It is used in: 1) Yes-no questions 2) Imperatives as requests or statements as remarks of any emotion. II- How to describe it? 1) Intonation markings: identifying the tone units by using the intonation markings. 2) Graphic description: The voice descends 118
  119. step-wise at each stressed syllable and then rises. III. Illustrative examples: 1) Yes-no questions: Did you see me leave the house? - . 2) Imperatives as requests or statements as remarks of any emotion. Don’t go away! - 119
  120. That’s funny. - SUSTAINED INTONATION I. Definition: Sustained intonation is the ccombination of falling and rising tunes. II. Uses of sustained intonation: 1) Subordinate clause: tune 2 + main clause : tune 1 When he came, I asked him to wait. 120
  121. 2) Main clause: tune 1 + subordinate clause: tune 2 I asked him to wait when he came. 3) Main clause: tune 1 + Adverb phrase: tune 2 I’ll ask him myself, if necessary. 4) Tag-questions-falling: statement: tune 1 + tail: tune 1 121
  122. It’s a fine day, isn’t it? (yes, it is) 5) Tag-questions-rising: statement: tune 1 + tail: tune 2 It’s a fine day, isn’t it? (yes, it is or No, it isn’t) 122
  123. Exercises 1) Circle the words that contain: 1. a low vowel: weed, wad, load, lad, rude 2. a high vowel: sat, suit, got, meet, mud 3. a front vowel: gate, caught, cat, kit, put 4. a back vowel: maid, weep, coop, cop, good 2) Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound: 123
  124. 1. low front vowel 2. long high back vowel 3. short front high vowel 3) What is the difference between vowels and consonants? 4) Circle the words that end with: 1. A nasal: rain, rang, dumb, eat 2. A stop: lip, lit, group, crab, dog, hide, back 3. An affricate: much, back, edge, ooze 124
  125. 5) Write the symbol that corresponds to each of the following descriptions; then give an English word that contains this sound: Example: voiced alveolar stop > /d/: dog 1. voiced bilabial stop. 2. Voiceless alveolar stop. 3. Velar nasal. 4. Voiceless alveolar fricative. 5. Voiced affricate 125
  126. 6. palatal glide. 7. Voiced interdental fricative. 8. Voiceless labio-dental fricative 6) Circle the words that begin with: 1. A bilabial consonant: mat, gnat, sat, bat, rat, pat. 2. A velar consonant: knot, got, lot, cut, hot, pot. 3. A labio-dental consonant: fat, cat, that, mat, chat, vat. 126
  127. 4. An alveolar consonant: zip, nip, lip, sip, tip, dip. 5. An alveo-palatal consonant: sigh, shy, tie, thigh, thy, he. 7. In what cases are consonants syllabic? Give illustrative examples. 8. Comment on the degree of voicing of the following plosives: 1. Peter 2. peak 3. ladder 4. deer 5. top 6. toad 127
  128. 9. Analyse the syllabic structure of the following words: a) One-syllable words 1. cure 2. thwart 3. huge 4. shriek 5. square 6. stew 7. sprawl 8. splice 9. sphint b) Multi-syllable words: 1. other 2. explode 3. translate 4. wonderful 5. salute 6. condition 7. paragraph 8. beautiful 9. middle 128
  129. 10. Transcribe the following words phonemically and phonetically, paying attention to the allophones of the phonemes. 1. bake 4. bored 7. speed 10. car 2. goat 5. guard 8. partake 11. bad 3. doubt 6. peak 9. book 12. appeared 11. Give the phonetic transcription and explain the changes if there are any: 1) Good boy, good chip. 2) This sharp pen is mine, and that pen is yours. 129
  130. 3) Ten boys met and said good morning. 4) That pen, that men, that boy, that cup, that girl. 5) This shop, this year, has she? 6) Ten pens, ten boys, ten men, ten cups, ten girls. 12. Make necessary changes in these for casual speech: 1) Have you seen my sports shirts? 2) That’s impolite of you to say it. 130
  131. 13. The following utterances are given in spelling and in a slow, careful phonemic transcription. Rewrite the phonemic transcription as a “broad phonetic” one so as to show likely assimilations, elisions and linking. 1) One cause of asthma is supposed to be allergies 2) What the urban population could use is better trains. 3) She acts particularly well in the first scene. 131
  132. 14. Put an accent mark over the main stressed syllable of the following words: a. politician b. democratic c. personality d. secretary e. manipulate f. nobility g. particular h. comedian i. grammatical j. geography 15. Put the stress marks on the following words: a. shop-fitter b. open-ended c. Japanese d. birth-mark e. anti-clockwise f. confirmation 132
  133. 16. Mark the stress over the following phrases & sentences according to their four degrees of stress. 1. pronounce it. 2. Dr. Baker 3. silk dress 4. singing birds 5. understand him 6. She overslept 7. He’s my science teacher. 8. Does he know it? 9. I have to put away the car. 10. They realize the difficulty. 133
  134. 17. Describe the intonation of the following sentences graphically: 1. If you like, I’ll send the car for you. 2. Where have you put it? 3. That’s right. 4. Must you go now? 5. You’re wondering who I am, aren’t you? 6. Did you have a good holiday? 7. You must take him home. 8. I prefer red if you’ve got it. 134