Bài giảng Tiếng Anh - Sociolinguistics (Ngôn ngữ xã hội học) - Trương Văn Ánh

Nội dung text: Bài giảng Tiếng Anh - Sociolinguistics (Ngôn ngữ xã hội học) - Trương Văn Ánh

1. SOCIOLINGUISTICS NGễN NGỮ XÃ HỘI HỌC Trương Văn Ánh Trường Đại học Sài Gũn
2. Syllabus Duration: 2 credits (30 periods) Mid-test: 30% (Group presentation) Attendance: 10% Final test: 60% (40 multiple choice questions + 10 open-ended questions)
3. Main course: INTRODUCTION TO SOCIOLINGUISTICS by Anthony C. Oha, PhD, NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA (2010) References 1. Ronald Wardhaugh (2006). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, Blackwell Publishing House 2. Janet Holmes (2011). An Introduction to Sociolinguistics, London University 3. Peter Trudgill (1984). Applied Sociolinguistics, Academic Press 4. Miriam Meyerhoff (2008). Introducing Sociolinguistics, Routledge
4. Summary CHAPTER I: BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS (Three units) CHAPTER 2: LANGUAGE USE IN SOCIETY (Two units) CHAPTER 3: LANGUAGE VARIATION IN SOCIETY (Two units)
5. CHAPTER I: BASIC CONCEPTS IN SOCIOLINGUISTICS UNIT 1: WHAT IS SOCIOLINGUISTICS? 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we will begin this course by introducing the concept of sociolinguistics as an academic discipline. We will study also the applications of sociolinguistics and find out the essence of the social function of language.
6. Language and society are intertwined because a society moves with language. When communication takes a proper process whereby meaning is generated, and a society moves with the pace of the language. A language defines the linguistic behaviour of a group of people in a given society. We will find out what sociolinguistics means by examining the various definitions and unearth their points of convergence.
7. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of the unit, you should be able to: ã state the meaning of sociolinguistics; ã examine the various perceptions of sociolinguistics
8. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview There are numerous definitions of sociolinguistics. However, each of these definitions does not fail to acknowledge that sociolinguistics has to do with language use and a society’s response to it. Let us examine them.
9. 1. The study of the relationship between language and society, of language variation, and of attitudes about language. 2. A branch of anthropological linguistics that studies how language and culture are related, and how language is used in different social contexts. 3. A study of the relationship between language and social factors such as class, ethnicity, age and sex. 4. The study of language in social contexts. 5. The study of the sociological factors involved in the use of language, including gender, race, class, etc.
10. 6. The study of stylistic and social variation of language (vernacular). 7. The study of language in relation to its socio-cultural context. 8. Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context on the way language is used. 9. The study of social and cultural effects on language.
11. In all these definitions, it is clear that sociolinguistics is a discipline that yokes sociology with linguistics. It is a branch of sociology and as a concept, it is concerned with how language use is a determinant of a given society’s linguistic requirements. Every society has linguistic codes acceptable for communication and interaction. Sociolinguistics show how groups in a given society are separated by certain social variables like ethnicity, religion, status, gender, level of education, age, etc.
12. and how adherence to these variables is used to categorise individuals in social class or socio-economic classes. The social study of language is a modern linguistic paradigm because it was the modern linguists who first acknowledged and accepted that language by its nature is totally a social phenomenon. All the definitions here acknowledge that sociolinguistics has to do with language use and a society’s response to it.
13. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the relationship between sociology and linguistics in all the definitions above.
14. 3.2 Sociolinguistics Factors Sociolinguistics is a developing branch of linguistics and sociology which investigates the individual and social variation of language. Just as regional variation of language can give a lot of information about the place the speaker is from, social variation tells about the roles performed by a given speaker within one community, or country. Sociolinguistics is also a branch of sociology in that it reveals the
15. relationship between language use and the social basis for such use. Sociolinguistics differs from sociology of language in that the focus of sociolinguistics is the effect of the society on the language, while the latter's focus is on the language's effect on the society. Sociolinguistics is a practical, scientific discipline which researches into the language that is actually used, either by native speakers or foreigners, in order to formulate theories about language change. There are numerous factors influencing the way people speak which are investigated by sociolinguistics:
16. 1. Social class: the position of the speaker in the society, measured by the level of education, parental background, profession and their effect on syntax and lexis used by the speaker. An important factor influencing the way of formulating sentences is, according to sociolinguists, the social class of the speakers. Thus, there has been a division of social classes proposed in order to make the description accurate.
17. Two main groups of language users, mainly those performing non-manual work and those with more years of education are the ‘middle class’, while those who perform some kind of manual work are ‘working class’. The additional terms ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ are frequently used in order to subdivide the social classes. Therefore, differences between upper middle class can be compared with lower working class.
18. 2. Social context: the register of the language used depending on changing situations: formal language in formal meetings and informal usage during meetings with friends, for example. It is notable that people are acutely aware of the differences in speech patterns that mark their social class and are often able to adjust their style to the interlocutor. It is especially true for the members of the middle class who seem eager to use forms associated with upper class;
19. however, in such efforts, the forms characteristic of upper class are often overused by the middle class members. The above mentioned process of adapting own speech to reduce social distance is called convergence. Sometimes, however, when people want to emphasise the social distance, they make use of the process called divergence, purposefully using idiosyncratic forms.
20. 3. Geographical Origins: slight differences in pronunciation between speakers that point at the geographical region which the speaker comes from. Sociolinguistics investigates the way in which language changes, depending on the region of the country it is used in. To describe a variety of language that differs in grammar, lexis and pronunciation from others, the term dialect is used. Moreover, each member of community has a unique way of speaking due to the life experience, education, age and aspiration. An individual personal variation of language use is called an idiolect.
21. 4. Ethnicity: differences between the use of a given language by its native speakers and other ethnic groups. There are numerous factors influencing idiolect, some of which have been presented above; yet two more need to be elucidated, namely jargon and slang. Jargon is specific technical vocabulary associated with a particular field of interest, or topic. For example words such as convergence, dialect and social class are
22. sociolinguistic jargon. Whereas slang is a type of language used most frequently by people from outside of high-status groups, characterised by the use of unusual words and phrases instead of conventional forms. For example, a sociolinguist might determine, through study of social attitudes, that a particular vernacular would not be considered appropriate language use in a business or professional setting; she or he might also study the grammar, phonetics, vocabulary, and other aspects of this sociolect much as a dialectologist would study the same for a regional dialect.
23. 5. Nationality: clearly visible in the case of the English language: British English differs from American English, or Canadian English; Nigerian English differs from Ghanaian English; The study of language variation is concerned with social constraints determining language in its contextual environment. Code- switching is the term given to the use of different varieties of language in different social situations. William Labov is often regarded as the founder of the study of sociolinguistics. He is especially noted for introducing the quantitative study of language variation and change, making the sociology of language into a scientific discipline.
24. 6. Gender: differences in patterns of language use between men and women, such as quantity of speech, intonation patterns. 7. Age: the influence of age of the speaker on the use of vocabulary and grammar complexity.
25. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Discuss the various factors with which sociolinguists are concerned in studying the relationship between society and language.
26. 4.0 CONCLUSION Sociolinguistics is an important discipline which studies the effects of language use on a given society. Sociolinguistics studies those types of language variation which result from the correlation between language and social factors, such as social stratification (status), role, age, sex, ethnicity. Depending on the degree and pattern of their actualisation, participants select from a variety of available codes (languages, dialects, varieties), they may switch between them, accommodate or mix them.
27. The social status indicates an individual’s social position in a society, which is based on power differences, prestige and social class, along with the associated rights and duties. The broadest social class categories are upper, middle and lower classes which correlate with accents (e.g., posh, refined, RP vs. low, uneducated, regional, local dialect) and speech varieties (Standard English vs. non- standard varieties).
28. 5.0 SUMMARY In sociolinguistics, it can be shown that speakers change the forms of language they use in quite precisely describable social circumstances. Speakers might switch from a ‘high’ form of their language to a ‘low’ form as and when the social environment suggests that they should do so: they speak, for instance, a standard educated form of their language in formal situations, and use a dialect form (whether social or geographical or both) of their language in informal, casual situations.
29. Speakers are seen to be aware of the 'correlations'; that one social situation demands the use of a particular form of the language and that another social situation demands another. The role of the social is to establish the correlation; the role of the individual is to implement and instantiate it as appropriate sociolinguistic behaviour. Speakers demonstrate a competence that goes well beyond the grammatical/syntactic competence proposed by Chomsky. Thus, sociolinguistics relates linguistic behaviour with social demands.
30. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS 1. Explain the relationship between language and society. 2. What are the social factors that influence language use? 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING - Chambers, J.K. (1995). Sociolinguistic Theory. Oxford, England: Blackwell. - Coulmas, F. (Ed.) (1997). The Handbook of Sociolinguistics. Oxford: Blackwell. - De Saussure, F. (1916). Course in General Linguistics. Geneva.
31. UNIT 2: SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE VARIATION 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we will study language varieties as they pertain to sociolinguistics. In every aspect of human endeavours, there are varieties of languages that are applied in that setting. Every social situation has a linguistic bias appropriate for it.
32. At the primordial classification, a language has three varieties: the sign, the written and the spoken, and each of these types has various ways by which it is used or applied. Whenever a spoken variety is written down, it is often distinguished because of the colloquial qualities inherent. We study the difference between the written and the spoken varieties here and the notion of sociolinguistic variation in language use in a society.
33. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of this study, you should be able to: ã state the concept of language varieties properly ã discuss the concept of variation in sociolinguistics ã distinguish between written and spoken varieties of a language ã explain that variation in language is determined by social situations ã identify the variations of language in a given social setting.
34. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview Language, as it is described in books and articles on morphology or semantics, is often presented as a uniform entity. However, even within one language community, such as country or state, significant differences can be seen. Such regional variation of languages is also subject to linguistic investigations.
35. General descriptions of languages focusing on pronunciation, or grammar, usually provide information about the standard variety of a given language. Nonetheless, that does not mean that it is in any respect better than its other varieties. The standard language is chosen for such accounts because it is frequently the official kind, and, in the case of English, an idealised version that learners of English as a second language usually attempt to learn.
36. One of the most easily noticeable features characterising some regional feature of a language is most certainly accent. Although it is generally believed that some people speak with an accent and others do not, this is not true. Every language speaker utters words with some kind of accent which can tell the listeners where the speaker is from, as the very term, accent, is characterised as: the way of pronouncing words characteristic of a group of people, showing which country, or part of a country, the speaker is from. Accent is frequently confused with the term dialect which denotes aspects of pronunciation together with words and syntax slightly different from the standard variety.
37. Although various dialects of one language posses grammar rules and vocabulary characteristic to them, speakers of different dialects of one language understand each other without major difficulties. Moreover, one language user can speak two different dialects, or varieties of one language. In countries like China or Malta, there are distinct forms of language used on everyday basis and on special occasions. Such a linguistic situation, when one variety of language is considered more prestigious and one move vernacular, but both are in use depending on situation, is called diglossia.
38. Apart from regional variations of a language within the boundaries of a country or speech community, there are other factors influencing language change. In certain areas of the world, English has been used as a lexifier, that is, a language which is a source of words, for varieties of language called pidgins. A pidgin, or a contact language, is a mixture of two other languages, created usually because of trading purposes between peoples who do not share a common means of communication. English-based pidgins are used in India, Cameroon, and Nigeria, for example.
39. Such varieties of language often have limited vocabulary, poorly developed grammar and are used only when other types of communication are impossible. When a pidgin begins to be used by a larger number of people, its vocabulary and grammar expand, and it starts to be used in a wider context. As it is developed as a contact language, pidgin does not have any native speakers, yet if it is used on a wider scale, children of people using it might acquire it as their mother tongue.
40. When such a language starts to be used by a second generation of speakers, it is called a creole. It is the next stage of development for pidgin and it is characterised by different grammatical features such as avoidance of passive voice, lack of case distinction in pronouns, and different word order. Some English-based creoles include: Gambian Creole, Hawaiian Creole, and Australian Creoles.
41. As the process of the development of a pidgin into a creole is called creolisation, there is also a process of decreolisation, which stimulates further change of a language. When people using a creole have some contact with the standard language, they tend to shift from one form to the other, thus often changing the structures of creole to make it resemble the standard version, which is perceived as having a higher social prestige.
42. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Discuss the determinants for the choice of varieties by a speaker of a language.
43. 3.2 Notion of Sociolinguistic Variation A variety of a language is a form that differs from other forms of the language systematically and coherently. Variety is a wider concept than style of prose or style of language. Some writers in sociolinguistics use the term lect, apparently a back-formation from specific terms such as dialect and idiolect. Varieties such as dialects, idiolects, and sociolects can be distinguished, not only by their vocabulary,
44. but also by differences in grammar, phonology and prosody. For instance, the tonal word accents of Scandinavian languages have differing realisations in many dialects. As another example, foreign words in different sociolects vary in their degree of adaptation to the basic phonology of the language. Certain professional registers such as legalese show a variation in grammar from the standard language.
45. For instance English journalists or lawyers often use grammatical moods such as subjunctive mood or conditional mood, which are no longer used frequently by other speakers. Many registers are simply a specialised set of terms (see technical terminology, jargon). It is a matter of definition whether slang and argot are to be considered included in the concept of variety or of style. Colloquialisms and idiomatic expressions are usually understood as limited to variation of lexicon, and hence of style.
46. The concept of language varieties in general, and language registers in particular, can be of great help in translating as well as in evaluating translations. It will be useful sometimes to refer to considerations of register. Since the concept of a “whole language” is so broad and therefore rather loose, it is not altogether useful for many linguistic purposes, whether descriptive or comparative. In other words, the concept of language as a whole unit is theoretically lacking in accuracy, and pragmatically rather useless. Consequently, the need arises for a scientific classification of sub-language or varieties within the total range of one language.
47. These varieties, or sub-languages, may be classified in more than one way. The suggested classes include idiolects, dialects, registers, styles and modes, as varieties of any living language. Another view is that of Pit Coder (1973), who suggests dialects, idiolects, and sociolects. Quirk (1972) proposes region, education, subject matter, media and attitude as possible bases of language variety classification of English in particular.
48. He recognises dialects as varieties distinguished according to geographical dispersion, and standard and substandard English as varieties within different ranges of education and social position. Language registers are recognised as varieties classified according to different subject matters. We acknowledge varieties distinguished according to attitude, which are called “styles,” and varieties due to interference, which arise when a foreign speaker imposes a grammatical usage of his native tongue upon the language, which he is using.
49. For example, a Frenchman might say “I am here since Friday.” This is lexically English, but grammatically French. Another way of classifying language varieties is according to the user or the use of language. Thus, in the first category, we may list social dialects, geographical dialects, and idiolects, whereas the second category includes language registers.
50. The total range of a language may be described in terms of its grammatical, phonological, and, sometimes, even graphological systems. Similarly, the language varieties of any given language have certain linguistic features in common. These common features of all the varieties of one language constitute the common core of that language. Apart from this common core of the language concerned, there are other lexical, grammatical, and stylistic features of each individual language variety,
51. and so these could serve as formal linguistic as well as stylistic markers of the language variety in question. It may be worth noting in this respect that these variety markers may exist on any level: phonetic, syntactical, stylistic and, above all, lexical.
52. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Discuss region, education, subject matter, and media as parameters for sociolinguistic investigation.
53. 3.3 Spoken and Written Varieties There are two varieties of language – the spoken and the written within standard (literary) language. This differentiation is predetermined by two distinct factors, namely, the actual situation in which the language is being used and the aim of communication. The situation in which the spoken variety of language is used and in which it develops, presupposes the presence of the interlocutor, whereas, the written variety presupposes the absence of the interlocutor.
54. The spoken language has a considerable advantage over the written because of such factors as human voice, all kinds of gestures, which give additional information. The written language has to seek means to compensate for what it lacks. This is the reason why the written language is more carefully organised, more explanatory; the word choice is more deliberate.
55. The spoken language is spontaneous, momentary. It vanishes after having fulfilled its purpose, which is to communicate the thought, no matter how trivial or important. The idea remains, the language disappears. The written language is able to live forever with the idea it expresses.
56. The spoken language cannot be detached from its user; the written language can be detached and objectively looked at. The writer has an opportunity to correct and improve what has been put on paper. The written language bears a greater volume of responsibility than its spoken counterpart. The spoken language differs from the written language phonetically, morphologically, lexically and syntactically. The most striking difference between the spoken and the written language is in the vocabulary used.
57. There are words and phrases typically colloquial, on the one hand, and typically bookish, on the other hand. If colloquial words and phrases find their way into the written language, they immediately produce a marked stylistic effect and can be used for the speech characterisation, for example. The spoken language widely uses intensifying words. These are interjections and words with strong emotive meaning, as oaths,
58. swear-words and adjectives which have lost their primary meaning (He dropped my paper down. I am very sure.). The spoken language is characterised by the insertion into the utterance of words without any meaning, which are called “fill-ups” or empty words (as well, and all, so to say, whatever, you know, that is, etc).
59. The essential difference between the two varieties of language is evidently reflected in the syntactical structure. The syntactical peculiarities of the spoken language are omission of the part of utterance easily supplied by the situation in which the communication takes place (Who you with? Tell you what?). Tendency to use the direct word- order in questions or omit auxiliary verb, leaving it to the intonation to indicate the grammatical meaning (He knew she was dead?) unfinished sentences (If I were you ).
60. a) Usage of a construction with two subjects (a tautological subject) (Helen, she was there.) b) Absence of connecting words (Came home late. Had a cup of tea. Went to bed soon after that.) c) Syntactical structures, expressing definite emotions, which can be understood only through a proper intonation design (Isn't she cute! Don't you tell me that! It’s a lie!)
61. d) The written language is characterised by the exact nature of the utterance (the abundance of all kinds of connecting words) the bookish “space-wasters” (despite the fact; reach a decision) e) The use of complicated sentence-units (long periods are more frequent than short utterances) f) An essential property of the written variety of language is coherence and logical unity backed up by purely linguistic means.
62. The choice of colloquial vocabulary falls into the following groups or varieties of choice, depending on the user’s intent, social situation and immediate need: 1. Common colloquial words.
63. Slang is the most extended and vastly developed subgroup of non-standard colloquial layer of the vocabulary of a given type of language. Besides separate words, it includes also highly figurative phraseology. Slang occurs mainly in dialogue, and serves to create speech characteristics of personages).
64. 2. Professional and Social Jargons A jargon is a special type of vocabulary in a given language. They are used in emotive prose to depict the natural speech of a character within the framework of such device as speech-characterisation. They can show vocation, education, breeding, environment and even the psychology of a personage. Slang, contrary to jargon, needs no translation, jargon is used to conceal or disguise something.
65. 3. Vulgarisms Vulgarism is a term in ordinary people's language. It is a word or phrase from the language spoken by people generally, as contrasted with a more formal or refined usage of such language. Vulgarisms are divided into expletives and swear-words, used as general exclamations and obscene words. They are emotionally and strongly charged and can be used for speech-characterisation.
66. 4. Dialectal words Dialectal words are special word forms that indicate the linguistic origin of the speaker. They are introduced into the speech of personages to indicate their region. The number of dialectal words and their frequency also indicate the educational and cultural level of the speaker.
67. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Clearly differentiate spoken variety from written variety of a language.
68. 4.0 CONCLUSION A variety of a language is a form that differs from other forms of the language systematically and coherently. Variety is a wider concept than style of prose or style of language. Some writers in sociolinguistics use the term lect, apparently a back-formation from specific terms such as dialect and idiolect. Sociolinguistics is the study of the effect of any and all aspects of society, including cultural norms, expectations, and context, on the way language is used.
69. Certain professional registers, such as legalese, show a variation in grammar from the standard language. For instance, English journalists or lawyers often use grammatical moods such as subjunctive mood or conditional mood, which are no longer used frequently by other speakers. Many registers are simply a specialised set of terms. Legalese is the term given to the special technical terminology of any given language (usually English) in a legal document.
70. In linguistics, many grammars have the concept of grammatical mood, which describes the relationship of a verb with reality and intent. There are various ways of classifying choice of words or varieties in sociolinguistics but the immediate requirement is the need to use a given variety according to the immediate social requirement.
71. 5.0 SUMMARY In sociolinguistics, we investigate variations in language according to certain parameters. The essence is to determine the factors that influence varieties. Many varieties emerge out of stated historical linguistic parameters while some are based on individual yardsticks. As explained in sub section 3.2 on the notion of sociolinguistic variation, it is clearly stated that
72. marked varieties in every language has a hinge on the social requirements of the users at every given situation. Sociolinguistics is an investigative science that determines language variation according to societal requirements.
73. 6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENTS 1. Explain the expression ‘language variety’. 2. Distinguish between spoken and written varieties of language. 3. Discuss the various categorisations of language varieties. 4. Elaborate on the essence of varieties in sociolinguistics. 5. Examine the statement: ‘varieties result from social situations’.
74. 7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READING Brown, K. (2005). Encyclopaedia of Language and Linguistics, 2nd Edition. Oxford: Elsevier. Crystal, D. (2005). The Cambridge Encyclopaedia of the English Language, 2nd Edition. Cambridge: CUP. Wilson, R. A. (1999). The MIT Encyclopaedia of Cognitive Sciences. London: The MIT Press. Yule, G. (2006). The Study of Language. Cambridge: CUP.
75. UNIT 3: SOCIOLINGUISTIC DIFFERENCES 1.0 INTRODUCTION In this unit, we will study sociolinguistic differences that are necessary in the understanding of language use in society. There are other differences but we shall concentrate on differences in class, age groups, and gender. These differences are based on sociolinguistic enquiries about the social changes in human language. The interpretation of speeches is based on a society’s acceptability. We will study these differences and examine the implications in sociolinguistics. This will enable us understand how language is interpreted in the larger society.
76. 2.0 OBJECTIVES At the end of the unit, you should be able to: ã identify the differences in sociolinguistic data ã recognise the differences and their implications ã distinguish each difference from another ã relate these differences to sociolinguistic studies ã identify each difference as basic to sociolinguistic studies of language use.
77. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT 3.1 General Overview There are numerous factors influencing the way people use language, and these have been investigated by sociolinguists over the years. They include: 1) Social Class The position of the speaker in the society, measured by the level of education, parental background, profession and their effect on syntax and lexis used by the speaker.
78. 2) Social Context The register of the language used, depending on changing situations, formal language in formal meetings and informal during meetings with friends, for example: a) Geographical origins: slight differences in pronunciation between speakers that point at the geographical region which the speaker comes from; b) Ethnicity: differences between the use of a given language by its native speakers and other ethnic groups;
79. c) Nationality: clearly visible in the case of the English language: British English differs from American English, or Canadian English; Nigerian English differs from Ghanaian English. d) Gender: differences in patterns of language use between men and women, such as quantity of speech, intonation patterns. e) Age: the influence of age of the speaker on the use of vocabulary and grammar complexity.
80. e) Age: the influence of age of the speaker on the use of vocabulary and grammar complexity. f) Occupation: differences in language use with regards to professional jargons, slang and professional codes and signs. We will discuss these differences in detail in the subsequent sub- sections. The aim is to help you to make the students know the sociolinguistic effects of these social contexts with regard to determining language use.
81. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1 Explain the need for studying differences in language use.
82. 3.2 Differences According to Geographical Origins There are slight differences in pronunciation among speakers of a language that point at the geographical region which a given speaker comes from. In Nigeria, it is remarkably easy to understand the geographical origin of any user of English because of the marked phonological differences existing among the users of English resulting from the effects of the speakers’ mother tongues. For instance, in the northern part of Nigeria, there are marked aberrations in the use of the plosive /p/
83. and the fricative /f/ as in ‘people’ /pi:pl/ being pronounced as /fi:fl/ or ‘federal’ /fedrổl/ being pronounced as /pedrổl/, etc. In the south eastern part, the Igbos and the Efik/Ibibio have the tendency of misapplying the lateral sound /l/ where /r/ should be the correct sound as in [load] for [road] or [lice] for [rice]. In the southwest, some speakers of the Yoruba dialects are known for some marked phonological peculiarities as in using the fricative sound /s/ in place of /ch/ as in [sapter] instead of [chapter]; [sors] for [church], etc.
84. In Africa generally, it is possible to identify a Ghanaian user of English as different from a Nigerian, Kenyan or Liberian. The Ghanaian users are known for their good use of the fricatives, plosives and dental fricatives. It has often been discussed among African linguists that Ghanaian English pronunciation seems closer to the ‘Received Pronunciation’ (RP) pattern of Standard British English (SBE).
85. The Liberian users of English include elements of Americanism in their use of English because of their history. The South African user of English language speaks with the phonological intrusions of the Zulu language, especially those from the Zulu axis.
86. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2 Carefully discuss the marked phonological differences used in identifying Nigerian speakers of English.
87. 3.3 Differences According to Ethnicity There are marked differences between the use of a given language by its native speakers and other ethnic groups. This brings in one of the major reasons for the varieties of a particular language. English language has ethnic influence. The British English is different from American English in form and style because of certain ethnic reasons. The native English speakers use English as mother-tongue,
88. which means that there is no negative external effect on their English use, unlike the second language learners of English in Nigeria or Ghana. Canadian and Australian English users are different and reflect the ethnic bias of each user of the language. In Nigeria, there are marked ethnic reflections in the use of English and other languages. The Igbo language in use in Enugu, Imo and Anambra states are different from the minute varieties of Igbo in use in many parts of Delta and Rivers states.
89. The speakers of Kwale, Ika, Aniocha and Oshimili Igbo use different varieties as a reflection of their ethnic background. Even in the western part, there are marked ethnic differences among the Ijebu, Oyo, Ife and Badagry users of Yoruba language. In the north, it is possible to distinguish a Fulani speaker of Hausa from a middle-belt speaker of Hausa. This also shows in the various ways by which each of these groups use English to communicate with the other ethnic parts of the country. This could be related to dialectical variation of the languages in question.
90. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3 Every language use has ethnic basis. Use the Nigerian situation in your discuss.
91. 3.4 Differences According to Nationality There are clearly visible cases of linguistic differences in the use of English language in many countries: British English differs from American English, or Canadian English; Nigerian English differs from Ghanaian English, etc. Nigerian English has been adapted to the Nigerian environment in order to meet the second language requirements of the people. It is not surprising that there are different varieties of the English language in Nigeria: Educated Nigerian English (ENE), Popular Nigerian English (PNE), Nigerian Pidgin English (NPE) and Creole English.
92. Jowitt (1981) identified several varieties of English language in use in Nigeria because, being a second and a national language in Nigeria, English language is serving several purposes in the areas of education, business, communication, official matters and international relations. We see this same phenomenon in the American use of English. American English has elements of Americanism but there are other marked varieties like the ‘General America’
93. (GA) used in official and government circles different from African American English or Black English, which has elements of profanity, raw and unpolished use of English words. English language in Britain has marked class consciousness, differentiating the royals from the commoners; the educated from the uneducated, etc. English, like French and other world languages, reflect the nationality of the users. However, it is not surprising that the nationality of any speaker of English could be identified merely by listening to his phonological and morphological applications of English.
94. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 4 Every language adapts to its environment. Discuss the manner of adaptation of English as a national language in some countries.
95. 3.5 Differences According to Occupation There are marked differences in language use with regard to professional jargons, slang and professional codes and signs. Every profession has a register and ways of applying words in discourse. In the legal profession, certain common English words like ‘bench’, ‘wigs’, ‘bar’ are given specified meanings, which are different from the general use. Hence, ‘bench’ is not a kind of ‘seat’ but a group of prosecutors in a law court; ‘wigs’ are not what women adorn their
96. hairs with, but rather a kind of ‘dress code’ that reflects a lawyer as a learned man; and ‘bar’ is not a place for drinking or eating like a pub or restaurant, but rather means the association of lawyers. This is a common phenomenon in the use of language in many professions. In the medical profession words like ‘injection’, ‘drugs’, ‘antibiotics’, ‘malaria’, ‘diabetes’, ‘hypertension’, ‘cancer’, etc are often used to reflect sicknesses and the processes of curing sicknesses. It is not wrong to hear these
97. words being used in a general sense as in: “I injected patience into my mind when I was waiting for him” or “His general behaviour has a cancerous effect on the entire students in the school”. Note that these words, even in their adapted use, still reflect the medical semantics. In sociolinguistics, every profession or occupation has ways by which words are adapted to suit their routines. This occupational language use makes it easy in identifying professions, their basic linguistic requirements and the society’s needs for such uses in education and interaction.
98. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 5 Explain the importance of language in the identification of occupations.
99. 3.6 Differences According to Class Sociolinguistics as a field was pioneered through the study of language variation in urban areas. Whereas dialectology studies the geographic distribution of language variation, sociolinguistics focuses on other sources of variation, among them class. Class and occupation are among the most important linguistic markers found in society. One of the fundamental findings of sociolinguistics, which has been hard to disprove, is that class and language variety are related.
100. Members of the working class tend to speak less standard language, while the lower, middle, and upper middle class will in turn speak closer to the standard. However, the upper class, even members of the upper middle class, may often speak 'less' standard than the middle class. This is because not only class, but class aspirations, is important. In class aspiration, studies, such as those by William Labov in the 1960s, have shown that social aspirations influence speech patterns. This is also true of class aspirations.
101. In the process of wishing to be associated with a certain class (usually the upper class and upper middle class) people who are moving in that direction socio-economically will adjust their speech patterns to sound like them. However, not being native upper class speakers, they hypercorrect, and end up speaking 'more' standard than those whom they are trying to imitate. The same is true for individuals moving down in socio-economic status.
102. An important factor influencing the way of formulating sentences is, according to sociolinguists, the social class of the speakers. Thus, there has been a division of social classes proposed in order to make the description accurate. Two main groups of language users, mainly those performing non-manual work and those with more years of education are the ‘middle class’, while those who perform some kind of manual work are ‘working class’. Additional terms ‘lower’ and ‘upper’ are frequently used in order to subdivide the social classes. Therefore, differences between upper middle class can be compared with lower working class in any society.
103. It is notable that people are acutely aware of the differences in speech patterns that mark their social class and are often able to adjust their style to the interlocutor. It is especially true for the members of the middle class who seem eager to use forms associated with upper class, however, in such efforts the forms characteristic of upper class are often overused by the middle class members. The above mentioned process of adopting own speech to reduce social distance is called convergence.
104. Sometimes, however, when people want to emphasise the social distance, they make use of the process called divergence, purposefully using idiosyncratic forms.
105. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 6 How does class determine language use in societies?
106. 3.7 Differences According to Age Groups There are several different types of age-based variation one may see within a population. They are: vernacular of a subgroup, with membership typically characterised by a specific age range, age-graded variation, and indications of linguistic change in progress. One example of subgroup vernacular is the speech of street youth. Just as street youth dress differently from the “norm”, they also often have their own “language”. The reasons for this are to
107. (1) enhance their own cultural identity, (2) identify with each other, (3) exclude others, and (4) invoke feelings of fear or admiration from the outside world. Strictly speaking, this is not truly age-based, since it does not apply to all individuals of that age bracket within the community. Age- graded variation is a stable variation which varies within a population based on age.
108. That is, speakers of a particular age will use a specific linguistic form in successive generations. This is relatively rare. People tend to use linguistic forms that were prevalent when they reached adulthood. So, in the case of linguistic change in progress, one would expect to see variation over a broader range of ages.
109. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 7 Age grades are likely to use same language forms. Discuss this phenomenon in sociolinguistics.
110. 3.8 Differences According to Gender Men and women, on average, tend to use slightly different language styles. These differences tend to be quantitative rather than qualitative. That is, to say that women make more minimal responses than men is akin to saying that men are taller than women (i.e., men are on the average taller than women, but some women are taller than some men).
111. The initial identification of a women's register was by Robin Lakoff (1975), who argued that the style of language served to maintain women's (inferior) role in society (“female deficit approach”). A later refinement of this argument was that gender differences in language reflected a power difference (O'Barr & Atkins, 1980) (“dominance theory”). However, both these perspectives have the language style of men as normative, implying that women’s style is inferior.
112. More recently, Deborah Tannen (1991) has compared gender differences in language as more similar to ‘cultural’ differences (“cultural difference approach”). Comparing conversational goals, she argued that men have a report style, aiming to communicate factual information, whereas women have a rapport style, more concerned with building and maintaining relationships. Such differences are pervasive across media, including face-to- face conversation. Communication styles are always a product of context,
113. and as such, gender differences tend to be most pronounced in single-gender groups. One explanation for this is that people accommodate their language towards the style of the person they are interacting with. Thus, in a mixed- gender group, gender differences tend to be less pronounced. A similarly important observation is that this accommodation is usually towards the language style, not the gender of the person. That is, a polite and empathic male will tend to be warmed up to on the basis of their being polite and empathic, rather than their being male.
114. SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 8 Discuss the likely areas of difference in language use between men and women.
115. 4.0 CONCLUSION The basic question in sociolinguistics is: What is it that gives rise to difference in language use? This question forms the basic reason for sociolinguistic inquiries. Differences in use determine all linguistic (inter)action, and much of the work of sociolinguistics focused on the working of differences in linguistic practices. Of course, to focus on differences as the motor for linguistic production, as the generative principle of the very forms of linguistic utterances, was to invert the relation
116. between the linguistic and the social, and to make the social prior. For Gumperz, as for Labov, the social caused selections of different codes, but it did not reach into the organisation of code: language remained a discreet autonomous system. For Halliday, the social was responsible for the shape of the system – for him, language is as it is because of its social functions - and the individual chooses within the potential of the system. Yet the conditions prompting the choice of the individual
117. and the social conditions of the choice are based on select differences. In sociolinguistics, the social is seen as a field of power and the linguistic action of socially formed and positioned individuals is seen as shaped first and foremost by differences in social situations. All linguistic interactions are shaped by differences of varying kinds, and no part of linguistic action escapes the effects.
118. 5.0 SUMMARY Language is a means to instantiate, to realise and to give shape to (aspects of) the social. There is no linguistic action other than as part of the unfolding making of text in social/linguistic action. In linguistics, action, as social action, is central, and with that the question of the agency of individuals also moved to centre stage. Linguistic is linked with the social. The individual has the knowledge of codes, including codes which link the social and the linguistic.
119. For Halliday, the linguistic is a socially shaped resource, organised as a system of choices in which the action of the individual in making choices produces meaning. Text, as the manifestation of social action is central to sociolinguistics. This is the case, both for its meaning-aspect and its form-aspect. The meaning of the text arises out of the meaning of the social, and the form which the text ‘has’ – whether in its material manifestation such as a talk of 15 minutes or a story of three pages length;